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PowerPoint Presentations for
Seventh Edition
Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Vivian McCann
Prepared by
Beth M. Schwartz Randolph College
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2. Chapter 4 Learning and Human Nature
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN:
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Learning vs. Instincts
Learning
A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes
Habituation
Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus
Instincts
Motivated behaviors that have a strong innate basis
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Learning
Mere Exposure Effect
Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
Behavioral Learning
Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g., classical and operant conditioning)
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5. What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response.
Key Question 4.1: What sort of learning does classical conditioning explain?
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6. Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
Acquisition
Initial learning stage in classical conditioning
Conditioned response (CR) becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS)
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7. Basic Features of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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8. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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9. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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10. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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11. The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the conditioned stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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Figure 4.1 Basic Features of Classical Conditioning Before conditioning, the food (UCS) naturally elicits salivation (UCR). A tone from a tuning fork is a neutral stimulus (NS) and has no effect. During conditioning (the acquisition phase), the tone (NS) is paired with the food (UCS), which continues to elicit the salivation response (UCR). Through its association with the food, the previously neutral tone becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), gradually producing a stronger and stronger salivation response (CR). Source: Zimbardo, P.G., & Gerrig, R. J. (1999). Psychology and Life, 15th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Copyright © 1999 by Pearson Education. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figure 4.1
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13. Classical Conditioning
Extinction
Weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
Unexpected reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
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14. Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
Figure 4.2
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15. Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization
The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS
Stimulus Discrimination
Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to similar stimuli
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16. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Fear (Little Albert)
Counterconditioning
Conditioned Food Aversions
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17. Biological Predispositions: A Challenge to Pavlov
Conditioned aversions involve both nature and nurture.
Garcia & Koelling (1966):
Selective CS-UCS connection
Innate disposition to associations
Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning?
What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its genetic preparedness.
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18. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior—such as rewards and punishments—influence the probability that the behavior will occur again.
Key Question 4.2: How do we learn new behaviors by operant conditioning?
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19. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
Learning in which the probability of a response or changed by its consequences—that is, by the stimuli that follow the response
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20. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning?
Law of Effect
Responses that produced desirable results would be learned or “stamped” into the organism.
Reinforcer
Condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response
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21. Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences.
“The power of reinforcement”
Operant Chamber
Barlike apparatus that delivers reinforcers and punishers contingent on an animal’s behavior
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22. The Power of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcers
Stimulus presented after a response; increases the probability of that response happening again
Positive = add or apply
Negative Reinforcers
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus; increases the probability of that response happening again
Negative = subtract or remove
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23. Contingencies of Reinforcement:
Varying the timing and frequency of reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced
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24. Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules
Reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.
Interval Schedules
Reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Interval (VI)
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25. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unchanging number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g., factory workers getting paid after every ten cases of product are completed
Variable Interval (VI)
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26. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement presented after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g., slot machine pay-offs
Variable Interval (VI)
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27. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforcement presented after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g., weekly or monthly paychecks
Variable Interval (VI)
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28. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement presented after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial
Variable Ratio (VR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
e.g., random visits from the boss, who delivers praise
Variable Interval (VI)
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29. Patterns of Responding
Figure 4.4
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30. The Power of Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that fulfill basic biological needs or desires, such as food and sex, that have an innate value to an organism
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31. The Power of Reinforcement
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers
Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers
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32. Factors that Can Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement
Instinctive Drift
Innate response tendencies interfere with learned behaviors; innate tendencies can override behaviors learned through reinforcement
E.g., attempting to train your cat to not scratch the furniture
Premack Principle-
A preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred activity
E.g., children sitting quietly in class in order to go out for recess
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Punishment
Punishment
An aversive consequence that diminishes the strength of the response it follows
How does this differ from negative reinforcement?
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Punishment
Positive Punishment
Application (+) of an aversive stimulus after a response
Negative Punishment
Removal (-) of an attractive stimulus after a response
Both attempt to decrease the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur.
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Figure 4.5
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36. Four Kinds of Consequences
Table Four Kinds of Consequences Three important points to keep in mind as you study this table: 1. “Positive” and “negative” mean that a stimulus (consequence) has been added (presented) or subtracted (removed). These terms have nothing to do with “good” or “bad, pleasurable or painful.” 2. We can often predict what effect a particular consequence will have, but the only way to know for sure whether it will be a reinforcer or a punisher is to observe its effect on behavior. For example, although we might guess that a spanking would punish a child, the attention might actually serve as a reinforcer to strengthen the unwanted behavior. 3. From a cognitive viewpoint, we can see that reinforcement consists of the presentation of a pleasant stimulus or the removal of an unpleasant one. Similarly, punishment entails the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one.
STIMULUS
Table 4.1
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37. When Does Punishment Work?
When presented without delay
When consistent
When limited in duration and intensity
When the consequence is logical
When limited to the specific situation at hand
When no mixed messages are sent
When negative punishment is used
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38. Uses and Abuses of Punishment
Problems associated with punishment:
Power of use usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed
Rewards can override/overpower the punishment
Often triggers escape or aggression
Teaches legitimate use of aggression to influence others
May inhibit learning new and better responses
Is often applied unequally
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39. A Checklist for Modifying Operant Behavior
Consider combining the following:
Positive reinforcement
encourage desirable behaviors
Punishment
use logical consequences, swiftly, without undue harm
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
control all possible reinforcers
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40. Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared
Table 4.2
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Classical and Operant Conditioning Can Work Together
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42. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes rather than as changes in behavior alone.
Key Question 4.3: How does cognitive psychology explain behavior?
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43. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Insight Learning
Cognitive learning, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perception
Cognitive Maps: Tolman
A mental representation of a physical or mental “space”
Support that learning was mental, not purely behavioral
How does cognitive psychology explain learning?
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44. How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?
Latent Learning
When learning occurs without reinforcement and without any hint that learning took place
Further support for cognitive explanation of learning vs. the behavioral explanation
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45. Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
Form of cognitive learning
New responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior.
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46. Observational Learning Applied to Social Problems around the Globe
In Mexico, popular soap Ven Conmigo improved adult literacy.
Populations Communications International is a nonprofit that created television dramas around the world promoting:
Women’s rights
Safe sex
Preventing HIV
Unwanted pregnancies
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47. Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Long-Term Potentiation
Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells
Believed to be the neural basis of learning
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48. Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Extinction
Forgetting unimportant associations
Neurotransmitters block memories.
glutamate; norephinephrine
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49. Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Brain Circuitry for Different Types of Learning
Simpler circuits
classical conditioning and operant learning
Complex learning
concept formation, insight learning, and observational learning
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50. Brain Mechanisms and Learning
Observational Learning and Mirror Neurons
Neurons that help us imitate others’ behaviors
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51. Behavioral Learning and Cognitive Learning Compared
Table 4.3
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