1. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. LearningLearning Chapter 5

2. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 Classical Conditioning Learning Outcomes –Describe the basics of classical conditioning and how they relate to learning –Give examples of applying conditioning principles to human behavior –Explain extinction –Discuss stimulus generalization and discrimination Learning Outcomes –Describe the basics of classical conditioning and how they relate to learning –Give examples of applying conditioning principles to human behavior –Explain extinction –Discuss stimulus generalization and discrimination

3. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 The Basics of Classical Conditioning Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response –Palov’s experiment Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response –Palov’s experiment

4. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4

5. 5 The Basics of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus: before conditioning, this stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (bell) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response, without having been learned (meat) Neutral stimulus: before conditioning, this stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (bell) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response, without having been learned (meat)

6. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 The Basics of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR): natural, innate, reflexive response; unlearned (salivation to meat) Conditioned stimulus (CS): once the neutral stimulus, paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused by the UCS (bell) Conditioned response (CR): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (salivation to the bell) Unconditioned response (UCR): natural, innate, reflexive response; unlearned (salivation to meat) Conditioned stimulus (CS): once the neutral stimulus, paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused by the UCS (bell) Conditioned response (CR): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (salivation to the bell)

7. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Conditioning and Human Behavior Human behavior is also learned through classical conditioning, particularly emotional responses, such as fear – Watson & Rayner’s experiment to classically condition Little Albert to show fear of a rat Neutral stimulus = rat UCS = loud noise UCR = fear of the noise CS = rat CR = fear of the rat Human behavior is also learned through classical conditioning, particularly emotional responses, such as fear – Watson & Rayner’s experiment to classically condition Little Albert to show fear of a rat Neutral stimulus = rat UCS = loud noise UCR = fear of the noise CS = rat CR = fear of the rat

8. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 ExtinctionExtinction Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no further conditioning Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no further conditioning

9. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 ExtinctionExtinction

10. 10 Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization: a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood for generalization Stimulus discrimination: if two stimuli are sufficiently different from each other that one brings about the conditioned response but the other does not Stimulus generalization: a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood for generalization Stimulus discrimination: if two stimuli are sufficiently different from each other that one brings about the conditioned response but the other does not

11. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 Operant Conditioning Learning Outcomes –Define the basics of operant conditioning –Explain reinforcers and punishment –Present the pros and cons of punishment –Discuss schedules of reinforcement –Explain the concept of shaping Learning Outcomes –Define the basics of operant conditioning –Explain reinforcers and punishment –Present the pros and cons of punishment –Discuss schedules of reinforcement –Explain the concept of shaping

12. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 The Basics of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning: learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened (more likely to recur regularly) or weakened (less likely to recur regularly), depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences

13. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 The Basics of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again –Primary reinforcer –Secondary reinforcer Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again –Primary reinforcer –Secondary reinforcer

14. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 Positive and Negative Reinforcers Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in a preceding response Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in a preceding response

15. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 PunishmentPunishment Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will happen again –Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant stimulus to the environment –Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus from the environment Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will happen again –Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant stimulus to the environment –Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus from the environment

16. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 Figure 2

17. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 The Pros and Cons of Punishment Punishment can be effective, but there are also disadvantages –Frequently ineffective if not delivered soon after undesirable behavior –Physical punishment can send message of approval & even encouragement of physical aggression in other situations –Sometimes difficult for punisher to control the degree/amount of physical punishment…“in the heat of the moment” Punishment can be effective, but there are also disadvantages –Frequently ineffective if not delivered soon after undesirable behavior –Physical punishment can send message of approval & even encouragement of physical aggression in other situations –Sometimes difficult for punisher to control the degree/amount of physical punishment…“in the heat of the moment”

18. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement: different patterns of frequency & timing of reinforcement following desired behavior –Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs (learning occurs more rapidly) –Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior some (but not all) of the time it occurs (behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops) Schedules of reinforcement: different patterns of frequency & timing of reinforcement following desired behavior –Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs (learning occurs more rapidly) –Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior some (but not all) of the time it occurs (behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops)

19. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made (ex.: rat receives a food pellet every 10 th time it presses a lever) Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex.: telephone salesperson’s job) Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made (ex.: rat receives a food pellet every 10 th time it presses a lever) Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex.: telephone salesperson’s job)

20. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 ShapingShaping Shaping: the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior –First, reinforce any behavior that is remotely similar to the desired behavior –Then reinforce only responses that are closer to the desired behavior –Then reinforce only the desired behavior Shaping: the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior –First, reinforce any behavior that is remotely similar to the desired behavior –Then reinforce only responses that are closer to the desired behavior –Then reinforce only the desired behavior

21. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21

22. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 Cognitive Approaches to Learning Learning Outcomes –Explain latent learning and how it works in humans –Discuss the influence of observational learning in acquiring skills –Describe research findings about observational learning and media violence Learning Outcomes –Explain latent learning and how it works in humans –Discuss the influence of observational learning in acquiring skills –Describe research findings about observational learning and media violence

23. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 Cognitive Approaches to Learning Cognitive learning theory: focuses on the thought processes (cognitions) that underlie learning

24. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 Latent Learning Latent learning: Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it –Cognitive map: mental representations of spatial locations and directions Latent learning: Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it –Cognitive map: mental representations of spatial locations and directions

25. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 Observational Learning Observational learning: learning by watching the behavior of another person (model) (Albert Bandura, the “social cognitive approach”)

26. © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 Violence in the Media Research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively –One study found one-fourth of violent young male offenders had attempted a media-inspired copycat crime Research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively –One study found one-fourth of violent young male offenders had attempted a media-inspired copycat crime