1. Classical Conditioning

2. Introduction Classical conditioning –Ivan Pavlov –John B. Watson –BehaviorismBehaviorism

3. Pavlov’s Experiments Parts of Classical Conditioning –Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US) –Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR) –Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS) –Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

4. Through direct experience with animals, we come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This best illustrates: A. the law of effect. B. spontaneous recovery. C. respondent behavior. D. associative learning.

5. Ivan Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person was a(n): A. primary reinforcer. B. unconditional stimulus. C. immediate reinforcer. D. conditioned stimulus.

6. Conditioning seldom occurs when a(n) ________ comes after a(n) _____. A. CS; US B. UR; CS C. secondary reinforcer; operant behavior D. negative reinforcer; operant behavior

7. The predictability of an association between a CS and a US facilitates an organism's ability to anticipate the occurrence of the US. This fact is most likely to be highlighted by a(n) ________ perspective. A. evolutionary B. behaviorist C. cognitive D. neuroscience

8. Researchers condition a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n): A. negative reinforcer. B. conditioned stimulus. C. conditioned reinforcer. D. unconditioned stimulus.

9. If you get violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, you will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where you ate or to the sound of the music you heard there. This best illustrates that associative learning is constrained by: A. intrinsic motivation. B. spontaneous recovery. C. biological predispositions. D. conditioned reinforcers.

10. After getting ill from eating her friend’s Thanksgiving turkey, Natalia couldn’t stand the the sight or smell of turkey. However, when her friend baked a whole chicken, Natalia thought it sounded good. This illustrates: A. generalization. B. discrimination. C. extinction. D. acquisition.

11. Brian ate a tuna salad sandwich that had become tainted from being in the sun too long. Not long after eating, Brian became extremely nauseated and felt awful. After that, even the sight of a tuna sandwich caused Brian to feel nauseated. In this scenario, what is the conditioned response (CR)? A. tuna B. nausea C. mayonnaise D. sight of any sandwich

12. Extinction occurs ___________ in classical conditioning and ___________ in operant conditioning. A. when the CS is presented with the US; when reinforcement increases B. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly; when reinforcement increases C. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly; when reinforcement stops D. when the CS is presented with the US; when reinforcement stops

13. Operant Conditioning

14. Introduction Respondent behavior –behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus –Classical conditioning Operant conditioning –Associate own actions with consequences –Behavior that operates ON the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

15. Skinner’s Experiments Edward Thorndike’s Law of EffectEdward Thorndike’s Law of Effect –1874-1949 –Rewarded behavior is likely to recur –Puzzle box B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) –Behavioral technology –Behavior control Teach pigeons unpigeon- like behavior

16. Skinner’s Experiments Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)Operant Chamber

17. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior Shaping –reinforcers guide successive approximations –Discriminative stimulusDiscriminative stimulus in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). Teach pigeon to peck after seeing human face but not other images, pigeon learns to recognize faces…faces= discriminative stimulus Which type of stimulus gets the reaction that is reinforced

18. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

19. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer –Anything that strengthens the behavior it follows –Positive reinforcement – adds a positivePositive reinforcement –Negative reinforcement – removes a negativeNegative reinforcement Not punishment Removes a punishing event

20. Negative Reinforcement Taking aspirin to relieve headache Putting mittens on because it is cold Giving in to a whining child Fanning oneself to escape the heat Leaving a movie theater if the movie is bad Smoking in order to relieve anxiety Feigning stomachache to avoid school Putting up umbrellas to escape the rain Saying “uncle” to stop being beaten

21. Skinner’s Experiments Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcer –Satisfies a biological need Conditioned reinforcer –Gains its reinforcing power through its association w/ the primary reinforcer –Secondary Reinforcer Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcers –immediate best in animals –Humans respond to delayed Social competent & high-achieving

22. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcment – Learning occurs rapidly, but… – Extinction occurs rapidly Partial (intermittent) Reinforcment – Slower to learn but more resistant to extinction – Fixed-Ratio – Variable-Ratio – Fixed-Interval – Variable-Interval

23. slow/steady rate of responding Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Ratio – dependent on the behavior itself; a certain number of behaviors are needed before reinforcement will occur FIXED –RATIO – reinforce behavior after set # of responses VARIABLE-RATIO – reinforce behavior after unpredictable # of responses…slot machine Interval – involves a TIME element; time must pass before reinforcement will occur FIXED –INTERVAL – reinforce 1 st response after set time…produces stop- start behavior (more as reward draws near) VARIABLE-INTERVAL – reinforce 1 st response after varying time intervals subject must be behaving at the right time to get reinforcement high rate of responding

24. Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules

29. Reinforcement Schedules 1.VR 2.FR 3.VI 4.FI 5.VI 6.VR 7.FI 8. FR 9. VR 10. VI 11. FR 12. FI

30. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment Punishment –Positive punishment –Negative punishment Negative Reinforcement encourages behavior. When something unpleasant ceases, the behavior that caused it to stop is reinforced

31. Sensitivity to Punishment & Reward Questionnaire Are some of us more sensitive to punishment? Are some of us more sensitive to reward? Sensitivity to Punishment Assign 1 point for each yes answer for odd #s 0-24 range Sensitivity to Reward Assign 1 point for each yes answer for even #s High punish. Score vulnerable to anxiety. High reward score = impulsivity.

32. Skinner’s Experiments Punishment

37. Negatives of using punishment –Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten –Punishment teaches discrimination did child learn not to curse or just not to curse in house? –Punishment can teach fear –Physical punishment may increase aggression

38. Punishment tells you what not to do; reinforcement tells you what to do

39. Extending Skinner’s Understanding Cognition and Operant Conditioning Latent learning –Cognitive mapCognitive map Insight learningInsight Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation overjustification effect

40. Extending Skinner’s Understanding Biological Predispositions Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive Instinctive Drift

41. Skinner’s Legacy Applications of Operant Conditioning At school In sports At home For self- improvement

42. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Similarities between classical and operant conditioning Differences between classical and operant conditioning

43. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

71. The law of effect relates most closely to: A. modeling. B. operant conditioning. C. classical conditioning. D. latent learning.

72. For some children who bite themselves or bang their heads, squirting water into their faces when they hurt themselves has been observed to decrease the frequency of these self-abusive behaviors. This best illustrates the potential value of: A. punishment. B. conditioned reinforcers. C. negative reinforcers. D. latent learning.

73. Occasional, unpredictable reinforcement usually results in _________ rates of responding. A. unpredictable B. steady C. delayed D. speedy

74. Learning by Observation

75. Introduction Observational learningObservational learning –Social learning –ModelingModeling Learning more powerful if observer is similar to model

76. Mirrors in the Brain Mirror neurons –Provides a neural basis for imitation & observational learning –Neurons fire when see someone else do behavior –Empathy…infer another’s mental state yawning “contagious” Theory of Mind –autism pain empathy

77. Bandura’s Experiments Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

78. Bandura’s Experiments

80. Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects Prosocial effects Antisocial effects

81. The End

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84. Definition Slides

85. Learning = a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

86. Habituation = an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

87. Associative Learning = learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

88. Classical Conditioning = a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

89. Behaviorism = the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

90. Unconditioned Response (UR) = in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

91. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) = in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response.

92. Conditioned Response (CR) = in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

93. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (CS), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

94. Acquisition = in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

95. Higher-order Conditioning = a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

96. Extinction = the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

97. Spontaneous Recovery = the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

98. Generalization = the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

99. Discrimination = in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

100. Learned Helplessness = the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

101. Respondent Behavior = behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

102. Operant Conditioning = a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

103. Law of Effect = Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

104. Operant Chamber = in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

105. Shaping = an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

106. Discriminative Stimulus = in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

107. Reinforcer = in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

108. Positive Reinforcement = increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

109. Negative Reinforcement = increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment).

110. Primary Reinforcer = an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

111. Conditioned Reinforcer = a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

112. Continuous Reinforcement = reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

113. Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement = reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

114. Fixed-ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses.

115. Variable-ratio Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

116. Fixed-interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed.

117. Variable-interval Schedule = in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

118. Punishment = an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

119. Cognitive Map = a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

120. Latent Learning = learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

121. Insight = a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

122. Intrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

123. Extrinsic Motivation = a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

124. Observational Learning = learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

125. Modeling = the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

126. Mirror Neurons = frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

127. Prosocial Behavior = positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.