1. LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT6
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive Developmental Approaches
John W. Santrock

2. Cognitive Developmental Approaches
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

3. Processes of Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Processes of Development
Piaget observed own 3 children; believed six processes used in constructing knowledge
Schemes
Assimilation
Accommodation
Organization
Equilibrium
Equilibration

4. Schemes Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Schemes
Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Behavioral schemes: physical activities characterizing infancy
Mental schemes: cognitive activities develop in childhood

5. Assimilation and Accommodation
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Assimilation and Accommodation
Both operate even in very young infants
Assimilation — incorporate new information or experience into existing knowledge schemes
Accommodation — adjust existing schemes to take in new information and experiences

6. Organization Children cognitively organize experiences
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Organization
Children cognitively organize experiences
- Grouping isolated behaviors into a
higher-order cognitive system; receives
continual refinement
- Grouping items into categories

7. Equilibrium and Equilibration
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Equilibrium and Equilibration
Proposed explanation of cognitive shift (qualitative) from one stage of thought to next
Disequilibrium — creates motivation for change; shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict
Equilibration — they resolve conflict through assimilation and accommodation, to reach a new balance or equilibrium of thought

8. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Stages of Development
Piaget’s theory unifies experiences and biology to explain cognitive development
Motivation is internal search for equilibrium
Four stages of development…progressively advanced and qualitatively different

9. Sensorimotor stage First of Piaget’s stages Birth to about 2 years
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage
First of Piaget’s stages
Birth to about 2 years
Infants construct understanding of world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions
Contains six substages

10. Four distinct stages in Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) This is experienced in the here and now (The active child: infants develop goal-directed behavior, means-ends thinking, and object permanence).
 Schemes- organized patterns of behavior, becoming more elaborate as development proceeds. The baby will organize their activity in relation to their environment via organization, adaptation, and equilibrium (first 5 substages).

11. Substages:
Stage 1 (1st/2nd month): reflex activity. Reflexes organize the newborn’s interactions. Within 3 weeks, babies come to expect certain coordinations among perceptual events, such as sights and sounds. Begin to exercises some control over reflexes- even without normal stimulus. Suck reflexes when lips are touched; eventually searches for nipple even when not touched; then sucks even when not hungry but nipple present. Cannot grasp object looking at.

12. Substages:
Stage 2 (2 to 4 months): Self-investigation. Elaborates on existing schemes and integrates simple schemes into more complicated behaviors. Modification and repetition of scheme to achieve interesting sensations: coordination of different schemes (e.g., looking and grasping). Primarily interested in own body. Repeats pleasant bodily sensations first by chance, then repeats for pleasure. Begins to suck different objects differently.
Primary circular reactions: simple repetitive acts that center upon the infant’s own body (e.g., thumb sucking, hand clasping).

14. Substages:
c. Stage 3 (4 to 8 months): Coordination and reaching out. Development of a variety of schemes that produce interesting effects: a more externally orientated, “cognitively extroverted” approach. Do something that produces a result, will repeat it. Manipulating objects and learning about their properties. Repeat actions that produce interesting results (e.g., shaking a rattle; coo when friendly face appears).

15. Substages:
Stage 3 (4 to 8 months): Coordination and reaching out.
Secondary Circular Reaction: no longer focus on infant’s own body, rather reaches out. Operant conditioning, when immediate reinforcement follows a spontaneous activity, the baby repeats the activity. Kicks the mobile, it moves interestingly, will do it again. Good at tracking moving objects with eyes and reaching for things to grasp. Retrieves a hidden toy under a transparent cup. Searches for missing objects.

17. Substages:
d. Stage 4 (8 to 12 months): Goal-directed behavior. Coordination of these schemes into intentional, “intelligent” looking means-end sequences, in which one scheme leads to another. Behavior is deliberate and purposeful. Try out new schemes in order to effect their environment. Combine sequences into order. Some schemes serve as a means for others in order to reach a goal. E.g., removes a barrier to get a toy. Can also anticipate events that do not depend on own immediate behavior (e.g., sees mother walking toward door, begins to cry). Crawls across room to get object. Baby is now a skillful imitator.

18. Substages:
Stage 4 (8 to 12 months): Goal-directed behavior.
Play, that is, practicing sensorimotor schemes for the sheer fun of it, becomes prominent here. Play for longer periods of time engaging in same behavior. Infants in this stage learn from both play and imitation. Can retrieve object hidden. Learn from past experience, modify and coordinate previous schemes.

19. Substages:
e. Stage 5 (12 to 18 months): Experimentation. Curious, trial and error experimentation, often leading to the discovery of new means to achieve goals; outer directed efforts to learn about the world. Experiments with hands or mouth. Explores new properties of objects by trial and error, systematically testing different approaches as if thinking “Lets see what happens if…”

20. Substages:
e. Stage 5 (12 to 18 months): Experimentation.
Varies approaches. This is the last “pure” sensorimotor stage. Still deals with only the “here and now”. Cannot yet imitate events that have occurred earlier or elsewhere. Imprisoned in own cognitive world by limited ability to communicate.

21. Substages:
e. Stage 5 (12 to 18 months): Experimentation.
Tertiary (third-order) circular reactions: child begins to actively experiment with things in order to discover how various actions will affect an object or outcome. (e.g., sitting in highchair, dawdling over oatmeal, drops handful over side. Does it again with more force, delighted in the splash; learns things fall down, not up; the force determines the degree of splash; can make an interesting patter on the floor with the oatmeal; and oatmeal is on the finer things in life!)

23. Substages:
Stage 6 (about 18 to 24 months): mental combinations and problem solving. Representational ability- to mentally visualize objects and actions in memory. Anticipates consequences. Invention of new means thorough internal, mental combinations; first appearance of deferred imitation, symbolic play, and speech.
This is the transitory stage between sensorimotor and conceptual intelligence. Beginning of the representational intelligence and preoperational thought, which occur in the preschool years. Changes include the ability to represent objects and events in thought by symbols and to act on those symbols. Demonstrates insight!

24. Substages:
Stage 6 (about 18 to 24 months): mental combinations and problem solving.
Can contemplate a problem, pause to think, and then act to solve it, without trial and error. Able to visualize own actions and thus use mental trial and error. Toddlers in this stage have not mastered symbolic thought, but do have mental images and apparently are able to use them in solving problems.
E.g.: play with shape box; searching for right hole for the shape before trying; succeeding!

25. Object Permanence
Objects have an existence of their own (object permanence). Occurs between 8-12 months. Takes 2 years to fully develop. 4-8 months: drop something, will look, then forget months: will look where they first found it after seeing it being hidden, even if it seen it move to another location (does not recall where moved to) months, look where last seen months- will look for object even if did not see it placed somewhere.

26. Object Permanence
Requires ability to have mental representations of the world and objects. Without mental images, symbols, or depictions to represent an object, you would be unable to think about it, because you have no internal was of representing it. In other words, without object permanence, “out of sight, out of mind”.

27. Spatial Knowledge
Development of object concept and spatial knowledge linked to self-locomotion and coordination of visual and motor information.
Causality
4-6 months and 12 months- discovery of effects of own actions and then effects of outside forces. That one event causes another. Allows to predict and control own world.

28. Sensorimotor Substages
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Substages 2 3 1
Simple reflexes
Basic means of coordinating sensation and action through reflexive behaviors
First habits and
primary circular
reactions
Infants’ infant’s attempt to reproduce interesting or pleasurable event (1-4 mos)
Secondary
circular reactions
Infant is more object- oriented moving beyond preoccupation with the self (4-8 months)

29. Sensorimotor Substages
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Substages 4 5 6
Coordination of secondary
circular reactions
Significant changes in
coordination of schemes
and intentionality (8-12 mos)
Tertiary circular reactions, novelty and curiosity
Intrigued by objects’ many
properties; explores new possibilities with them (12-18 mos)
Internalization of Schemes
Ability to use primitive
symbols; shift to mental
manipulation (18-24 mos)

30. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Object Permanence
Understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
One of infant’s most important accomplishments
Acquired in stages
Violation of expectations testing

31. Infant’s Understanding of Causality
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Infant’s Understanding of Causality
(b)
(c)
(a)
Fig. 6.3

32. Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
New research techniques suggest Piaget’s theory needs to be modified
Some abilities develop earlier
Intermodal perception; substantiality and permanence of objects
Transitions not as clear-cut; AB error
No general theory on how development changes in cognition and nature-nurture issue

33. Preoperational Stage Second Piagetian developmental stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage
Second Piagetian developmental stage
About 2 to 7 years of age; two substages
Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings
Not ready to perform Operations
Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what they only did physically before
Reversible mental actions

34. Cognitive Development- Piaget
Preoperational Stage (ages 2 to 7; 18 months to 8 years old)
The intuitive child
Children can use symbols and words to think
Intuitive problem solving, but thinking limited by rigidity, centrism, and egocentrism Understand that things have identities that are stable, unchanging
Understanding of cause and effect
Ability to classify
Understanding of numbers
Empathy
Theory of mind (aware of mental activity)  

35. Two stages of the Preoperational Stage:
Preconceptual Stage (2-4 years)
Begins to symbolize and develop ability to internalize objects and events, develop preconcepts. (e.g., the Santa they saw is the one and only Santa; recognize birds, but not types of birds)

36. Two types of reasoning: syncratic and transductive.
Syncratic: how preschoolers tend to sort and classify objects; according to a limited set of criteria. (e.g., the boat goes with other boats because they are boats; this glove goes with the boats because they are both green; this block goes with the boat because they are blocks and fit onto the deck of the boat).

37. Two types of reasoning: syncratic and transductive.
Transductive reasoning: involves drawing a reference about the relationship between two objects based on a single attribute. Generally leads to wrong conclusions. (e.g., if A has four legs and B has four legs, then A must be B and vice versa).
 Animism: the magical belief that inanimate objects have thoughts, feelings, and motives. Magical thinking: take rhymes/stories seriously (Rain, rain, go away; Step on a crack and break your mother’s back).

38. Intuitive stage (4-7 years); centers on one aspect at a time, egocentrism.
Beliefs are generally based on what they sense to be true rather than on what logic or rational thought would dictate. (e.g., recalling what color bead was first and last in a tube, even if reversing the tube.
Unable at this stage to use logical operations (e.g., if tube turned 29 ½ times, which bead on top? Must be able to count number of times tube turned with recalling what color was on top, etc.). Unable to understand concept of reversibility.

39. From action to symbol. Can use images and symbols, but lacks logical abilities.
Object permanence.
Deferred imitation occurs. Better grasp of symbols.
Acquisition of language is a major achievement here. Another major achievement is Intuition. Can look at a problem and quickly deduce the solution. Applies trial and error, applying one scheme after another until one works.

40. Egocentrism: unable to take role of another person or view the world from other vantage points. Does not know yet that others have different wants, needs, and perspectives.
 Precausal reasoning: the inability to distinguish between psychological and physical causes, between subjective experiences and objective events. E.g., convinced that dreams are real.
Centering: inability to consider more than one dimension at a time. Also, seeing is believing: appearance vs. reality. Only focus on one aspect at a time.

41. SUMMARY
Beginning of organized language and symbolic thought
Child begins to perceive language as a tool to get needs met
Much of child’s language is egocentric-they talk to self and do not listen to other children
Child does not use logical thinking; as a result, cannot reason by implication
Child’s reasoning is transductive reasoning: reasoning from a particular idea to a particular idea without logically connecting them

42. Pretend Play
Deferred imitation: based on mental representation of previously viewed event
Pretend play: fantasy/imaginary play, make object represent or symbolize something else.
Language: uses system of symbols to communicate
Conservation: Cannot yet grasp this concept (Two things remain equal even if appearance changes)

43. Distinguishing between Appearance and Reality
Age 5-6
What seems to be and what is (e.g., is the cookie monster (costumed person) really the cookie monster?
Distinguishing between Fantasy & Reality
18 months-3, distinguish between real and imagined events
magical or wishful thinking of age 3 and older does not seem to stem from confusion between fantasy and reality

44. The Symbolic Function Substage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Symbolic Function Substage
Symbolic function
Egocentrism
Animism
First substage of preoperational thought; young child gains ability to represent mentally an object that is not present (2-4 years)
Inability to distinguish between one’s own and another’s view
Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, capable of action

45. The Three Mountains Task
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Three Mountains Task
View 1
Child seated here
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
View 2
Fig. 6.4

46. The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children
(a) A 31/2-year-old’s symbolic drawing. Halfway into this drawing, the 31/2-year-old artist said it was “a pelican kissing a seal.”
(b) This 11-year-old’s drawing is neater and more realistic but also less inventive.
Fig. 6.5

47. The Intuitive Thought Substage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Intuitive Thought Substage
Children begin using primitive reasoning and want to know answers to all sorts of questions (4-7 years)
Why? questions exhaust adults
Centration — focusing attention on one characteristic to exclusion of all others
Conservation — object or substance amount stays same regardless of changing appearance; lacking in preoperational stage

48. Piaget’s Conservation Task
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Conservation Task
Fig. 6.6

49. Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length
Fig. 6.7

50. Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s third stage (7-11 years)
Children can perform concrete operations
Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning if applied to specific, concrete examples
Consider several characteristics of object at once
Cross-cultural variations exist

51. Cognitive development
Piaget: the Concrete Child
The major cognitive achievement of middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) as the development of logical thinking. Less egocentric.
In the sensorimotor stage, the infant’s actions and expectations show that they have begun to appreciate certain regularities in their environment.
In the Preoperational Stage, the child is able to form mental images and to represent and communicate their practical knowledge of the world symbolically.  

52. The preschooler:
can talk about people and events, make drawings, reenact events in symbolic play, and invent stories
their verbal explanations of time, space, and cause and effect may be poetic, but they are rarely logical
their thinking is intuitive.
They leap to conclusions and often confuses desires with reality, coincidence with cause and effect
The preoperational child deals in particulars; they have not discovered general rules, and don’t seem to feel a need for them

53. The concrete operational child:
Thinks more like an adult
Spatial thinking: can use a map, give someone directions, judge distances
Adult logic takes the form of deduction and induction
Both modes of thought establish connections between generalizations and particulars
Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular (if all men have hearts of gold, then this man has a heart of gold)

54. Cause and effect- understands this
The preoperational child reasons from particular to particular; therefore often assuming connections that do not exist; now Induction is reasoning form the particular to the general
Catagorization- sorts objects into categories; knows subclasses
Transitive reasoning occurs for the child: “I have not had my nap so it is not afternoon”)- understanding the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship to a third object (three sticks, identifies longer one)

55. Changes in the Concrete Operational Stages:
Thought becomes more systematic and planful
They can think ahead
Can shift mental gears
The preoperational child is a spectator, viewing the world as scenes seen while looking out a train window, have not explored the view/world yet. Now the child is in control; can sped up or slow down the thinking as the situation demands
Can think of alternate routes

56. Most important, can shift mind into reverse, retrace their mental route, and maybe discover where they made a wrong turn
These new found abilities Piaget named “operations”
An operation is a mental activity that organizes and transforms information
The difference between operations and schemes is that operations are mental manipulations of information, not physical or sensory associations
It is the difference between winding up and throwing a baseball and contemplating your next move in a chess game.

57. Inductive and deductive reasoning- inductive reasoning (conclusions about an entire class- my dog barks; your dog barks; all dogs bark);
deductive reasoning- usually develops in adolescence- general statement about a class (premise) and applies to particular members of that class (all dogs bark, Spot is a dog, therefore, Spot barks)

58. A child in this stage is limited to operations on the concrete or physical world; hence the term concrete operations: they think about real people, real objects, and possible events.
When formal operations occur, they will be able to deal with abstractions and hypothetical situations.
Concrete operations help the child to the discovery of logical relationships among objects and actions.

59. Conservation
Mastery of conservation is the major achievement of the concrete operational stage.
For the preoperational child, seeing is believing: they don’t understand that certain properties of a substance remain the same (are conserved).
Between ages 5/6, the child vacillates.

60. There comes a time somewhere between ages 6½ and 7 years, 8 months when the child’s attitude changes: they do not need to reflect, but rather decide, and may even look surprised that a question is asked, they are certain of the conservation.
Complete conservation may not fully develop until adolescence.
Piaget believes that conservation reflects a basic reorganization of the child’s mind. They are able to coordinate different pieces of information in their mind.  

61. The preoperational child focuses on one dimension (e. g
The preoperational child focuses on one dimension (e.g., length); the conserver is able to decenter attention and consider two or more dimensions simultaneously.
They can comprehend the functional relationship between height and width; focusing on the transformations that occur (the clay is rolled into different shapes).
They have reversibility: they can mentally undo the transformation by imagining rolling the clay back into its original shape.

62. Classification Skills
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Classification Skills
Concrete operations child understands one person can be father, brother, and grandson
Seriation — involves stimuli along quantitative dimension (e.g. length)
Transitivity — if relation holds between first and second object, and holds between the second and third object, then it holds between first and third object

63. Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought
Fig. 6.8

64. Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Formal Operational Stage
Individuals move beyond concrete operations and think in more abstract and logical ways (11-15 years)
Abstract, Idealistic, and Logical Thinking
Verbal problem-solving ability increases
Increased ability to think about thought itself
Thought is full of idealism and possibilities

65. Formal Operational Stage
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Formal Operational Stage
Children solve problems by trial-and-error
Adolescents think more like scientists
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Have cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce the best path to follow in solving a problem
Assimilation dominates initial development

66. Adolescent Egocentrism
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Adolescent Egocentrism
Heightened adolescents’ self-consciousness
Imaginary audience
Belief that others are as interested in them as they are
Involves attention-getting behavior motivated by desire to be noticed, visible, and “on stage”
Personal fable — adolescent’s sense of uniqueness and invincibility

67. Piaget and Education Take a constructivist approach
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Piaget and Education
Take a constructivist approach
Facilitate rather than direct learning
Consider child’s knowledge, level of thinking
Use ongoing assessment
Promote the student’s intellectual health
Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

68. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Contributions
Vision of children as active, constructive thinkers
Criticisms
Some estimates of children’s competence is inaccurate
Development not uniformly stage-like
Effects of training underestimated
Culture and education influence development

69. Applying and Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Neo-Piagetians
Argue Piaget got some things right, but theory needs revision
More emphasis to memory, attention, information-processing strategies, and processing speed

70. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Social contexts; minds are shaped by cultural context in which they live
Tools are provided by society
Children actively construct their knowledge and understanding through social interactions

71. The Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
The Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Tasks too difficult for children to master alone but that can be mastered with guidance and assistance from more-skilled person
Scaffolding
Changing level of support over course of a teaching session to fit child’s current performance level; dialogue is important tool

72. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
Fig. 6.9

73. Vygotsky: Language and Thought
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky: Language and Thought
Believed young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor behavior
Language and thought initially develop independently, then merge
Private speech: language of self-regulation
Self talk (3 to 7 years of age)
Inner speech: child’s thoughts

74. Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Teaching Strategies based on Vygotsky’s Theory
Successfully applied to education
Effectively assess child’s ZPD
Use child’s ZPD in teaching
Use more-skilled peers as teachers
Monitor and encourage private speech
Place instruction in meaningful context

75. Tools of the Mind Emphasizes child’s self-regulation
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Tools of the Mind
Emphasizes child’s self-regulation
Give special attention to at-risk children
Poverty
Difficult conditions (e.g. homeless, drug problems in home)
Dramatic play has central role in classroom
Child writings are important

76. Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory
Social constructionist approach
Importance of skills valued by specific culture
Knowledge constructed through social interactions (sociocultural)
Criticisms:
Overemphasize role of language
Facilitators may be too helpful, overcontrolling

77. Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Piaget’s View of Adult Cognition
Thinking qualitatively in formal operations same as adolescents
Adults have more knowledge
Research shows:
Many don’t reach highest level until adulthood
Many adults don’t use formal operational thinking

78. Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Thinking of young adults is beyond formal operational stage of adolescents. It is…
Realistic — Idealism decreases in face of real world constraints
Pragmatic — Switch from acquiring knowledge to applying it
Reflective and Relativistic — Move away from absolutist thinking of adolescence

79. Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage?
Cognitive Changes in Adulthood
Is There A Fifth, Postformal Stage?
Postformal thought is
Reflective, relativistic, and contextual
Provisional
Realistic
Open to emotions and subjective
More research needed
Another possible stage may be wisdom

80. 6
The End