1. Lessons Learned What are some bottom lines? 1.There are no absolutes. 2.Cultural influences are complex and dynamic. 3.Free Will is relevant. 4.Attributing cause is extremely complicated. 5.The field of psychology must address cultures. 6.Real world examples provide ultimate validation.

2. BUILDING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE The most frequently cited work in this area is by M. J. Bennett. He views intercultural competence (IC) more in terms of an ongoing, developmental approach than a grouping of specific behaviors.

3. In somewhat recent work (Bennett, 1993), he proposed a model of Intercultural Sensitivity which he defines as “The construction of reality as increasingly capable of accommodating cultural differences that constitute development” Bennett, 1993, p4).

4. SIX STAGES OF ETHNORELATIVISM Bennet outlines six stages in his model of Intercultural sensitivity, as follows: Stage One: Denial - This is a primitive ethnocentric stage in which there is denial that cultural differences even exist.

5. Stage (cont.) Stage Two: Defense - At this stage there is acknowledgement of cultural differences, BUT these differences are seen as threatening to self. - As a defense mechanism, many people denigrate others and express derogatory attitudes and behaviors towards them.

6. Satges (cont.) Stage Three: Minimization - This stages involves recognition of cultural differences BUT downplaying their importance in our lives. Stage Four: Acceptance - Cultural differences at this stage are recognized and accepted. Notions of biculturalism and multiculturalism stem from thinking at this stage.

7. Stages (cont.) Stage Five: Integration - The final stage of ethno-relativism has to do with the integration of plurality, as both a philosophy and a conscious understanding, into our cognitive organizational structures and our behavior. - At this stage cultural differences are evaluated on the basis of plurality and context as opposed to a single cultural perspective.

8. Bennett’s model offers a means of identifying the various stages involved in the development of ethno-relativism as well as the specific skills, cognitions, and emotional processes associated with each of these stages.

9. Post Notes on Acculturation The following two slides provide a succinct summary of the complex relationship between Acculturation and Environmental Stress The role of the actual acculturation experience is emphasized to demonstrate different hypothetical outcomes.

12. Post Notes on Developmental Processes and Culture

13. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Does Culture play a role? What does the research show?

14. Piaget’s Theory Cognitive Development involves various qualitatively different stages. Piaget’s theory (based on observations of Swiss children) –Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years –Preoperational stage: 2 to 6-7 years Conservation, centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, animism –Concrete operations stage: 6-7 to 11 years –Formal operations stage: 11 years to adulthood

15. Piaget’s Theory Mechanisms for moving from one stage to next –Assimilation: fitting new ideas into preexisting understanding of world –Accommodation: changing one’s understanding of world to accommodate ideas that conflict with existing concepts –Piaget believed these stages to be universal

16. Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Do Piaget’s stages occur in the same order in different cultures? –Yes Are the ages that Piaget associated with each stage of development the same in all cultures? –No, cultural variations exist (but children may have potential to solve tasks sooner)

17. Piaget’s Theory in Cross-Cultural Perspective Are there variations within, rather than between, Piaget’s stages? –Yes, cultural variations in order in which acquire skills within one stage Do non-Western cultures regard scientific reasoning as the ultimate developmental end point? –No Ex) Islamic educational systems

18. Piaget’s Theory: Summary and Discussion In some cultures, very few complete fourth-stage Piagetian task –Cultural appropriateness of tasks –Skills being tested –Role of previous knowledge and cultural values Universality of fourth stage has not been demonstrated

19. Other Theories of Cognitive Development Great divide theory –Separates Westerners from those in primitive societies –Non-Westerners’ development seen as inferior –Justification of colonial imperialism, ethnocentric Non-westerners also have ethnocentric assumptions

20. MORAL REASONING

21. Kohlberg’s Theory of Morality Kohlberg’s theory of moral development –Preconventional morality: compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards –Conventional morality: conformity to rules defined by others’ approval or society’s rules –Postconventional morality: moral reasoning on basis of individual principles and conscience

22. Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Cross-cultural studies suggest many aspects of Kohlberg’s theory of morality are universal –Snarey (1985), Ma (1988) Cross-cultural studies also raise questions about universal generalizability of Kohlberg’s higher stages –Cultural biases –Moral reasoning at higher stages is culture- specific

23. Cross-Cultural Studies of Moral Reasoning Miller –Moralities of community –Moralities of divinity

24. OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES

25. Developmental research offer insights into causes and contexts of ontogenesis of cultural differences Cross-cultural developmental research in many areas such as future-oriented goals and commitments, social expectations, affective and romantic relationships in adolescence, etc.