2. Life Span Development The Play Years (ages 2 to 6): Cognitive Development – Chapter 9 Psychosocial Development – Chapter 10 July 1, 2004 Class #8

3. Theory of Mind We each have our own personal understanding of human mental processes, and child develops this too –complex interaction of human mental processes emotions thoughts perceptions actions

4. Emergence by Age 4 Social referencing Sudden understanding that mental phenomena may not reflect reality –people can be deliberately deceived or fooled

5. Contextual Influences on Theory of Mind Brain maturation (prefrontal cortex) General language ability An older sibling Culture that anticipates the future

6. Language Emergent literacy—skills needed to learn to read Is early childhood a sensitive or a critical period for language development? –ages 2 to 6 do seem to be a sensitive period—a time when a certain type of development (in this case, emergent literacy) occurs most rapidly

7. Vocabulary Fast mapping—speedy and not precise way a child assimilates new words by mentally “charting” them into interconnected categories –logical extension, or application of newly learned word to other unnamed objects in same category, closely related to fast mapping –fast mapping aided by the way adults label new things for children

8. Children use basic assumptions about syntax and reference to fast map –children cannot comprehend every word they hear –difficulties may occur with words expressing comparisons with words expressing relationships of time and place Vocabulary

9. The grammar of a language includes the structures, techniques, and rules used to communicate meaning Young children learn grammar so well they tend to apply its rules when they should not, a tendency called overregularization –examples: plural nouns (“foots”), past tense (“breaked the glass”) Grammar

10. Learning Two Languages How easy is it to be bilingual? –many 6-year-olds have difficulty pronouncing certain sounds –but auditory sensitivity helps young children master pronunciation over time, a much harder task if language learned after puberty

11. Best solution: children become “balanced bilinguals,” fluent in 2 languages –research confirms children can become equally fluent in 2 languages –easiest way for child to become bilingual is if parents speak 2 languages ideally, each parent represents 1 language and helps child with mastery sending child to preschool where 2nd language taught also effective Learning Two Languages

12. Early-Childhood Education Controversy over whether, when, and where

13. Many Types of Programs Distinct educational curricula have been developed –Maria Montessori (100 years ago) developed structured, individualized projects for poor children

14. Many newer programs are “child- centered” or “developmental” –use a Piaget-inspired model that allows children to discover at their own pace Alternative programs stress academic readiness –some readiness programs explicitly teach basic school skills Child-Centered and Readiness Programs

15. Reggio-Emilia A new form of early-childhood education pioneered in the Italian city of that name –children encouraged to master skills not normally seen until age 7 –artistic expression, exploration of the environment, and collaboration between parents and teachers encouraged

16. Early childhood is the prime learning period for every child and some learn even more The above has led to conclusion: nations should provide quality early education Head Start –has provided half-day education for millions of 3 to 5 year olds, boosting abilities and skills, at least temporarily and probably for longer Reggio-Emilia

17. High-quality early education is associated with positive outcomes for all children –what is high-quality education? safety, adequate space, and equipment low adult-to-child ratio trained staff curriculum geared to cognitive development learning includes creative/constructive play Quality Learning

18. Chapter 10: Psychosocial Development Emotional Development –Self –Goals –Emotion During this age is now key ingredient allowing self to reach goals

19. Erikson’s 3rd Stage: Initiative vs. Guilt Occurs during the preschool years… –As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more than when they were infants –Active, purposeful behavior is needed to cope with these challenges –Attention span gets longer –Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, their behavior, their toys, and their pets –Self-concept develops –Developing a sense of responsibility increases initiative –Uncomfortable guilt feelings may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious about being independent

20. First step to emotional regulation: awareness of own emotions and the emotional response of others Emotional intelligence—Goleman’s term for the understanding of how to interpret and express emotions –develops throughout life, but crucial in early childhood amygdala—emotional hotspot in prefrontal cortex of brain that children need to govern if they are to become balanced and empathic adults parents can use children’s natural attachment to teach them how and when to express feelings Cognition and Emotions

21. Empathy—understanding another person’s emotions –leads often to prosocial actions helping another without obvious benefit to oneself Antipathy—disliking or hating someone else –may lead to antisocial behavior injuring another person or destroying something that belongs to another Empathy and Antipathy

22. Sharing –freely done or directed by others Aggression –instrumental—used to obtain an object such as a toy –reactive—involves retaliation for an act whether or not it was intentional –relation—designed to inflect psychic (mental) pain –bullying aggression—unprovoked attack

23. Peers—others of the same age and status -peers make the best playmates -play is most adaptive and productive activity of children Learning Social Skills Through Play

24. Rough-and-tumble play -helps child develop muscle strength and control -caregivers should look for a “play face” when attempting to figure out if child is playing or fighting Active Play

25. Sociodramatic play -helps child explore and rehearse social roles he/she has seen - helps child test ability to convince others -helps child regulate emotions through imagination -helps child examine personal concerns in nonthreatening way Imaginative Play

26. Baumrind’s 4 important dimensions that influence parenting –expression of warmth or nurturance –strategies for discipline –quality of communication –expectations for maturity Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting

27. 3 Styles –authoritarian—high standards and expectations with low nurturance children likely to become conscientious, obedient, and quiet—but not happy –permissive—little control, but nurturing children likely to lack self-control and are not happy –authoritative—limits and guidance provided but willing to compromise children are more likely to be successful, articulate, intelligent, and happy Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting

28. Recent studies have found link between parenting styles and child behavior less direct than Baumrind’s original research indicated –impact of child’s temperament –influence of community and cultural differences on child’s perception of parenting –in poor or minority families, authoritarian parenting tends to be used to produce high- achieving, emotionally regulated children: strict and warm can be successful

29. Techniques of Discipline We discussed this at length in last class…some points which both discussion and research seem to indicate are as follows… Discipline an integral part of parenting

30. Techniques of Discipline Culture is a strong influence -expectations -offenses -punishments In United States -time-out is used child stops all activity and sits in corner or stays inside for a few minutes

31. Techniques of Discipline From class discussion and research it appears evident that big variation occurs not only in different cultures but in ours… In deciding which technique to apply, parents should ask: How does technique relate to child? –child’s temperament, age, and perceptions crucial considerations

32. What About Spanking? Reasons for parenting variations –culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin –parents’ own upbringing Developmentalists fear children who are physically punished will learn to be more aggressive –domestic violence of any kind can increase aggression between peers and within families –Violence begets more violence???

33. Dilemma for parents about letting children watch television and play video games –parents find video a good babysitter –parents believe video can sometimes be educational tool Experts suggest parents turn off the TV to avoid exposing children to video violence The Challenge of Video

34. Exposure to violence great—good guys and bad guys show violent behavior All good guys male; no non-white heroes Women/females portrayed as victims or adoring friends—not as leaders Content of video games even worse than than that of television –more violent, sexist, racist The Evidence on Content

35. Children, especially males, who watched educational television became teens who earned higher grades, read more Children, especially females, who watched violent television had lower grades

36. The Evidence on Content Content of video games crucial reason behind great concern of developmental researchers -research shows that violent TV and video games push children to be more violent than they normally would be computer games probably worse, as children are doing the virtual killing

37. Role of Learning and Culture in Aggression Aggressive behavior is more common in individualist than in collectivist cultures Many learn aggressive responses by watching others –e.g., Bandura’s “Bobo doll” experiments People become aggressive when rewarded for aggressiveness and less aggressive when punished for aggression

38. How do rewards influence aggressiveness? Andrew Golden, at age 11 gunned down 4 students & 1 teacher at age 11… his grandfather is a gun collector who owns hundreds of firearms and is also a licensed gun dealer Rewards are reinforcers Social learning theory of aggressionSocial learning theory of aggression 

39. Glamorizing Violence Plagens, et al. (1991) –Typical American child sees 200,000 acts of violence on TV by age 18 –Children who watch a lot of violent TV are more violent towards peers –Experimental studies, in which violence is controlled, also find effects of watching violence

40. Space Blaster Doomsday Version 2.5

41. In this video game, it appears you win by beheading the guy???

42. Violent Video Games Several studies have shown significant results indicating that playing violent video games is associated with a history of property destruction and hitting other students… –Anderson & Dill (2000) College students randomly assigned to play a violent video game (Wulfenstein) later had more aggressive thoughts and feelings than those who played a nonviolent game (Tetrix)

43. The Evidence on Content Developmentalists look at the following to evaluate poor content -perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist stereotypes -depiction of violent solutions for every problem and no expression of empathy -encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions rather than thoughtful regulation of emotions

44. Albert Bandura (1925-present) Pioneering researcher in observational learning

45. Is Television To Blame? Hundreds of studies say yes! –Bandura says: People become immune to the horrors of violence They gradually come to accept violence as a way to solve problems They imitate the violence they observe on television They identify with certain characters

46. Male or female—important feature of self-concept –Sex differences—biological differences between males and females far less apparent than in adulthood –Gender differences—culturally imposed differences in roles and behaviors more significant to children than to adults Boy or Girl: So What?

47. By age 2, awareness of gender-related preferences and play patterns By age 3, cognitive awareness of own gender By age 4, awareness of “gender appropriate” toys or roles By age 6, well-formed ideas and prejudices about own sex and the other sex Development of Gender Awareness

48. Psychoanalytic –Freud’s view: sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent phallic stage—according to Freud, 3rd stage of psychosexual development; occurring in early childhood when penis becomes the focus of psychological concern and physiological pleasure Theories of Gender Differences

49. Freud’s Phallic Stage (3-6yrs old) Children realize anatomical difference – up to this point Freud feels that children thought that the other had the same “equipment” they did… Boys: –Initially think girls are hiding penis; then think its been cut off (ouch!) –According to Freud, at this point in the phallic stage the boy has discovered masturbation and wants to direct this phallic activity towards his mother

50. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Boys At this point, boys enter Oedipus complex and are in a “sexual love” with mother and want to kill father and marry mother They want sole sexual possession “Castration anxiety” ends this… –Fear of their father creates the superego –Desires for mother goes deeply into unconscious and creates strong superego –He identifies with dad and incorporates many of his values

51. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Boys Basically, he abandons the incestuous desires of the Id (under the threat of castration) and subdues the pleasure principle… –He does however understand that his time will come…he’ll get a woman someday hence he just has to wait to fulfill his libidinal urges

52. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Boys This ends the Oedipus complex for boys… Their desires for mom go deeply into the unconscious…later on in life other unfulfillable and inexpressible wishes will follow into this repressed area – like prohibitions on behavior from parents, teachers, police, religious authorities, etc.

53. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls The path for girls is less clear: First of all, Freud believes that all girls suffer from “penis envy”… She has seen it, and knows that she is without it, and she wants to have it…

54. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls Freud feels that girls try to deal with these feelings in three possible ways: –Denial – she persists in her thinking (at least for awhile) that she has a penis and this leads to psychosis later in life –I’ll get one somehow – she may somehow fixate on the idea that she will someday get a penis by whatever means possible –The normal route – accept the fact that she has been castrated

55. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls According to Freud, many girls believe they have been castrated, probably as a punishment for masturbating… Well, regardless of the route taken… –Inferiority complex develops which carries into adulthood –Furious with mother Anger and hatred for not giving her a penis –Contempt for entire female sex –Also, she feels the clitoris is inferior to the penis…so much so that she gives up masturbation entirely…even the idea disgusts her

56. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls Ok, so what happens next… Her father becomes a love object… –Since I can’t get a penis – I’ll have dad’s baby instead At this point, Freud announces, “the girl has turned into a little woman” Mother is rival –The mother becomes solely the object of jealousy and rivalry

57. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls So then, how does the Oedipus (Electra) complex end for girls??? –Freud struggles with explanation… –Basically, somehow (???) its repressed But not deeply into unconscious… –Girls don’t ever develop strong superego –Thus, they are not as moral as men –Aren’t suitable to be leaders, rulers (someone better tell Hillary)

58. Freud’s Phallic Stage: Girls Basically, girls never formed the strong superego – its not anchored like the boys and thus their unconscious wishes are more likely to rise up into consciousness during adulthood Many girls stay in Oedipus complex forever… –Nothing really ever ended it for them –Marry guys like dad

59. Bottom line: Guilt and fear resolved by gender appropriate behavior –Identification Freud’s Phallic Stage

60. Gender-appropriate behavior learned through observation and imitation Children learn gender-appropriate behavior by modeling it after that of people they want to imitate Especially for young boys, conformity to gender expectations rewarded, punished, modeled Behaviorism

61. Gender typing occurs after concept of gender has developed Once gender consistently conceived, child organizes world based on that understanding Gender schema organizes the world in terms of male and female -internal motivation to conform to gender- based cultural standards and stereotypes guides attention and behavior Cognitive Theory

62. Gender values strenuously kept Many traditional cultures emphasize gender distinctions To break through restrictiveness of cultural expectations, some embrace the idea of androgyny—a balance of male and female psychological characteristics -true androgyny possible if supported by whole culture Sociocultural Theory

63. Every aspect of human behavior a mix of genetics and environment –environment shapes, enhances, or halts genetic impulses Differences between male and female brains Environmental influences Epigenetic Theory