1. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS CHAPTER 8

2. Learning Objectives

3. FORMING A SENSE OF SELF

4. Psychosocial Development: Resolving the Conflicts Psychosocial development encompasses changes in individuals’ understanding of both themselves and others’ behavior Preschool years largely encompass what Erikson called the initiative-versus-guilt stage, which lasts from around age three to age six –INITIATIVE = desire to act independently from parents and becoming autonomous –GUILT = guilt of unintended consequences resulting in shame and self-doubt

5. Self- Concept in the Preschool Years: Thinking about the Self Self-concept or identity: Set of beliefs about what we are like as individuals Preschooler self-concept –Not “accurate” –More optimistic –Overestimates of abilities Tasks –Becoming their own person –Making own decisions –Shaping kind of person they are becoming

6. Cultural Influence View of self culturally bound View of self family tied –Collectivist Orientation: Asian promoting the notion of interdependence. parts of a larger social network in which they are interconnected with and responsible to others. View of self individually directed –Individualistic Orientation: Western emphasizes personal identity & uniqueness of individual. see themselves as self-contained and autonomous, in competition with others for scarce resources.

7. Cultural Influence My Comments Neither view is “correct” or complete Some religions provide concept of –responsible FOR others. Some economic philosophies provide concept of –CREATOR of resources or Transformer of resources The pie is not of fixed size! Balance self and group interests Balance internal and external focus Fundamentally about “Locus of Control” This is a Human Factors concept rarely applied to culture.

8. Developing Racial and Ethnic Awareness Developmental Diversity Racial and ethnic identity begins to formalize About 3 or 4 –Differences in skin color noticed –Identify themselves a member of a group Cultural meaning attached to differences comes later Permanency of group membership comes later

9. Developmental Diversity By age 3-4 years many preschoolers: Differentiate races Mirror social attitudes

10. Race Dissonance Minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people - called Race dissonance This is a minefield of hidden bias, vague thinking, lousy theories, and poor understanding. For a different view see “Petagogy of the Oppressed” Result of powerful influence of dominant [white] culture Is NOT disparagement of own racial characteristics Except for some [Wayne Williams]

11. Ethnic Identity Emerges somewhat later than racial identity –Usually less conspicuous than race Preschoolers who were bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English, are more apt to be aware of ethnic identity

12. Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. By Phinney, Jean S. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 108(3), Nov 1990, 499-514. Ethnic identity is central to the psychological functioning of members of ethnic and racial minority groups, but research on the topic is fragmentary and inconclusive. This article is a review of 70 studies of ethnic identity published in refereed journals since 1972. The author discusses the ways in which ethnic identity has been defined and conceptualized, the components that have been measured, and empirical findings. The task of understanding ethnic identity is complicated because the uniqueness that distinguishes each group makes it difficult to draw general conclusions. A focus on the common elements that apply across groups could lead to a better understanding of ethnic identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

13. If you are interested in reading more, here’s a nice article: Ethnic Identity Joseph E. Trimble and Ryan Dickson Western Washington University http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/trimble/research_themes/ethn icity_identity.htmhttp://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/trimble/research_themes/ethn icity_identity.htm

14. Gender Identity Sense of being male or female Well established by preschool years Same-sex preferences appear in many cultures By age 2 years: –Consistently label themselves and others as male and female

15. Gender Constancy Kohlberg (1966) –By age 4-5, children develop understanding of gender constancy Belief that people are permanently males or females because of fixed, unchangeable biological factors Gender schemas occur well before gender constancy is understood

16. Gender and Play Differences noted in play of male and female preschoolers Males: –More rough and tumble play –Same sex playmate preference around 3 Females: –Organized games and role playing –Same sex playmate preference around 2

17. Gender Expectations Expectations about gender-appropriate behavior more rigid and gender-stereotyped than adults up to 5 years Gender outweighs ethnic variables

18. Snips, and snails…. Preschoolers expect boys to demonstrate: CompetenceIndependenceForcefulnessCompetitiveness

19. Sugar and spice... Preschoolers expect girls to demonstrate: WarmthExpressivenessNurturanceSubmissiveness

20. Gender is not a “value” Do not allow these gender differences to be interpreted as “good” or “bad”. A complex social society needs both views. A family benefits from both views. I often see my marriage as two people standing back to back facing the outer world from two unique perspectives. The challenge is to meld the disparate views into common cause.

21. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Biological –Inborn, genetic factors produce gender differences Psychoanalytic –Gender differences result of moving through series of stages related to biological urges Social learning –Gender related behavior learned from observations of others’ behaviors Cognitive –Gender schemes form lens through which world is viewed Feedback & interaction perhaps?

22. Psychoanalytic Perspective on Gender Males and females go through different identification process Identifying with same sex parents enables child to adopt parents’ gender attitudes and values My opinion: Not identifying with opposite sex parents enables child to understand parent’s gender attitudes and values

23. Social Learning Perspective on Gender Gender related behaviors and expectations learned from observing others Books, media, television perpetuate gender related behavior and expectations But this is changing Gender confusion is increasing in US Some individuals do experience opposing or ambiguous gender identification. Should society support or punish?

24. Cognitive Perspective on Gender Gender schema or cognitive framework organizes relevant gender information Preschoolers begin developing “rules” about what is right and inappropriate for males and females

25. Bem There…Done That Sandra Bem and androgynous children –Encouraged to follow gender roles that encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes –Male-appropriate and female-appropriate traits

26. Four Approaches to Gender Development

27. FRIENDS AND FAMILY: PRESCHOOLERS’ SOCIAL LIVES

28. Preschoolers’ Social Lives Increased interactions with the world at large Peers with special qualities Relationships based on companionship, play, entertainment Friendship focused on completion of shared activities

29. A Friend Indeed… You Can't Come to my Birthday Party! View of friendship evolves with age and older preschoolers See friendship as continuing state and stable relationship Begin to understand concepts such as trust, support, shared interest

30. Playing by the Rules: The Work of Play Children are interested in maintaining smooth social relationships with friends Children try to avoid and/or solve disagreements

31. Learning to Play… Playing to Learn Play is critical to the overall development of young children Changes over time Becomes more sophisticated, interactive, cooperative Gradually more dependent on social and cognitive skills

32. Categorizing Play Functional play: simple, repetitive activities typical of 3- year-olds that may involve objects or repetitive muscular movements Constructive play: activities in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something

33. Building…inside and out! By age four, children engage in constructive play that: Tests developing cognitive skills Practices motor skills Facilitates problem solving Teaches cooperation

34. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Parallel Play Children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other Onlooker Play Children simply watch each other play Solitary Play Children play by themselves Associative Play Children interact with one another in groups of two or more Children share or borrow toys or materials, but do not do the same thing Cooperative Play Children play with one another, take turns, play games, and devise contests

35. Preschoolers’ Play

36. The Smallest Great Pretenders Nature of pretend, or make-believe, play changes during the preschool period: Becomes increasingly unrealistic and more imaginative Change from using only realistic objects to using less concrete ones At the start of the preschool period, children may pretend to listen to a radio only if they actually have a plastic radio that looks realistic. As the get older they are more likely to use an entirely different object, such as a large cardboard box, as a pretend radio.

37. Comparing Play Complexity by Ethnicity

38. What are you thinking, anyway? Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind Using their theory of mind, preschool children are able to come up with explanations for how others think and reasons for why they behave the way they do –Imagine things not physically present –Pretend and react to imagined events –Know that others have this capability –Begin to understand motives –Most have incomplete understanding of “beliefs” –Some can solve false belief problems

39. False Belief and the Sally-Anne Test/Task Story of two children Sally and Anne Sally has a basket Anne has a box Sally also has a marble which she places in her basket Sally leaves the room Anne moves the marble from the basket to her box Sally returns Ask child where will Sally look for marble Most children can not pass test until age 4 Downs syndrome children can pass task around 4 Autistic kids can't – even when older

40. Emergence of Theory of Mind Emergence related to: Brain maturation Hormonal changes Developing language Opportunities for social interaction and pretend play Cultural background Not related to: IQ Race Gender

41. Preschoolers’ Family Lives Many preschoolers face increasingly complex world For most children not a time of upheaval and turmoil Increased number of single parent headed families Still most children do not experience upheaval and turmoil Strong, positive relationships within families encourage relationships with other children In 1960, less than 10 percent of all children under the age of 18 lived with one parent. In 2000, a single parent headed 21 percent of white families, 35 percent of Hispanic families, and 55 percent of African- American families

42. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior AUTHORITARIAN Exhibit controlling, rigid, cold style Value strict, unquestioning obedience AUTHORITATIVE Set firm, clear, consistent limits Allow disagreement and use reasoning, explanations, consequences Supportive parenting

43. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior PERMISSIVE- INDIFFERENT Uninvolved in children's lives Set few limits PERMISSIVE- INDULGENT Involved with children Place little or no limits or control on children's behavior

44. Parenting Styles

45. Does parental discipline style result in differences in child behavior?

46. Parenting Outcomes Authoritarian parents = withdrawn, socially awkward children –Girls dependent on their parents –Boys are unusually hostile Permissive parents = dependent, moody, low social skilled children Uninvolved parents = emotionally detached, unloved, and insecure children Authoritative parents = independent, friendly, self- assertive, and cooperative. Note: No discussion of interaction w/ temperament

47. What I find missing from this research No attention paid to relation between children and parent by gender Little research on differing types within same household Inadequate attention paid to inconsistent parenting style IMHO the very worst situation Incomplete interest in change in parenting style. Due to: –Divorce/separation –Death of parent –Moving to new neighborhood –Change in parent physical or mental health –Birth of another child or adoption –Other factors like just time

48. Need to discuss interaction of Child temperament w/ parenting style How much does child drive parenting style? How much does parent’s rearing drive parenting style?

49. Remember… Baumrind research findings chiefly apply to Western societies (at a particular time) Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect cultural perspectives –nature of children –role of parents No single parenting pattern or style is likely to be universally appropriate or likely invariably to produce successful children But some parenting styles fairly consistently DO lead to failure.

50. Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment Five children are killed daily by caretakers –That would be 1825/year –Latest figures are 1500/year –Advocate agencies say under reported by 56% 140,000 are physically injured Three million are abused or neglected annually in U.S.

51. Types of Child Abuse Note: Neglect is often redefined to support agenda.

52. True or False? Child abuse can occur in any home or child care setting!

53. Stressful environments increase likelihood for abuse Poverty Single- parent homes High levels of marital discord Substance abuse Largest risk factor: Never married mothers African Americans are over-represented among child maltreatment fatalities. NOTE: NOT equal probabilities

54. What else? Vague demarcation between permissible and impermissible forms of physical violence –Line between “spanking” and “beating” is not clear –Spankings begun in anger can escalate into abuse Privacy of child care setting Unrealistic expectations My opinion: A NOISY swat on the bottom STOPS ongoing behavior. REDIRECTION changes behavior. Follow up DISCUSSION cements behavior modification.

55. ~ half of mothers with children <4 years of age have spanked their child in the previous week ~ 20 percent of mothers believe it is appropriate to spank a child less than 1 year of age In some cultures, physical discipline is more common.

56. The book says… Spanking is associated with lower quality of parent-child relationships, poorer mental health for both child and parent, higher levels of delinquency, and more antisocial behavior. Spanking also teaches children that violence is an acceptable solution to problems by serving as a model of violent, aggressive behavior. Consequently, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the use of physical punishment of any sort is not recommended. I say BS AAP members are idiots.

57. What Are the Warning Signs of Child Abuse? By acting incorrectly you can literally ruin a family and a child’s life.

58. Unfortunately… Child abuse laws are frequently abused –By schools –By divorcing parents –By vindictive neighbors & relatives –By the State –By the courts –By police Secret accusations No legal recourse No punishments for misuse Stigmatizes the innocent Abuses innocent children

59. So why then does abuse occur? Children are more likely to be victimized when they are: Fussy Resistant to control Slow to adapt to new situations Overly anxious Frequent bedwetters Developmentally delayed

60. It is crucial to remember… Labeling children as high risk for abuse does not make them responsible for their abuse!

61. What do the experts tell us about causality? CYCLE-OF-VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that abused and neglected children suffer abuse which predisposes them to be abusive adults Tension Building Abusing Incident Making Up

62. Psychological Maltreatment Not all abuse is physical! Psychological maltreatment –Occurs when parents or other caretakers harm children's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning –May take form of neglect in which parents may ignore or act emotionally unresponsive –Not as easily identified without outward physical signs

63. What are consequences of psychological maltreatment? Some children survive and grow into psychologically healthy adults Others suffer long-term damage –Low self-esteem, depression, suicide –Lying –Misbehavior –Underachievement in school –Criminal behavior

64. Abuse and Brain Development: A Tragic Relationship Brains of victims undergo permanent changes Reductions in size of amygdala and hippocampus in adulthood Changes due to overstimulation of the limbic system

65. Three Cheers for the Survivors! A Closer Look at Resilient Children Resilience Ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical damage Resilient children Exhibit ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical functioning

66. Werner (1995) Resilient infants Temperaments that evoke responses from wide variety of caregivers Affectionate, easy going, good-natured Easily soothed as infants Able to evoke whatever support available in environment Resilient children Socially pleasant, outgoing, good communication skills Relatively intelligent, independent Realistic

67. Disciplining Children For most children in Western cultures, authoritative parenting works best Spanking is never an appropriate discipline technique MY Opinion: Spanking or other physical action IS appropriate to STOP dangerous or harmful behavior. Tailor parental discipline to the characteristics of the child and the situation Use routines to avoid conflict

68. MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGGRESSION

69. Moral Development: Following Society's Rights and Wrongs Moral development refers to changes in people's sense of justice and of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues. Moral development = children's reasoning about morality, their attitudes toward moral lapses, and their behavior when faced with moral issues Several approaches have evolved Piaget's view of moral development Social learning approaches to morality Genetic approaches to morality concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character.

70. Moral Development… The case for right and wrong Changes in children's views of what is ethically right and what is the right way to behave are an important element of growth during the preschool years. Changes in sense of justice and of right and wrong Changes in behavior related to moral issues

71. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget HETERONOMOUS MORALITY 4 to 7 years Initial stage of moral development Rules seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond child's control and/or influence Intentions not considered Believe in immanent justice (immediate punishment for infractions)

72. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget INCIPIENT COOPERATION STAGE 7 to 10 years Become more social and learn the rules Play according to shared conception of the rules

73. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget AUTONOMOUS COOPERATION STAGE Beginning at 10 years Become fully aware that rules may and can be modified if people playing agree

74. What do Piaget's critics say? Accurate descriptions of how moral development proceeds Underestimates of age at which children's moral skills develop

75. Current Status It is now clear that preschool-age children understand the notion of intentionality by about age 3 This allows them to make judgments based on intent at an earlier age than Piaget supposed. When provided with moral questions that emphasize intent, preschool children judge someone who is intentionally bad as more “naughty” than someone who is unintentionally bad, but who creates more objective damage. By age 4 they judge intentional lying wrong.

76. Social Learning Approaches to Morality Focus on how environment produces prosocial behavior Moral conduct learned through reinforcement and modeling Preschoolers more apt to model behavior of warm (not cold), responsive, competent, high prestige adults and peers

77. More than mimicking Children do more than simply mimic unthinkingly By observing moral conduct, children are reminded of: Society's norms about importance of moral behavior as conveyed by significant others Connections between particular situations and certain kinds of behavior Abstract modeling Modeling paves the way for development of more general rules and principles in a process called abstract modeling.

78. Genetic Approaches to Morality Particular genes may underlie some aspects of moral behavior Preschoolers have genetic predisposition to behave generously or selfishly Environment also plays role in determining moral behavior

79. Empathy Empathy—the understanding of what another individual feels. One-year-old infants cry when they hear other infants crying. By 2 and 3, toddlers will offer gifts and spontaneously share toys with other children and adults, even if they are strangers. During the preschool years, empathy continues to grow as children's ability to monitor and regulate their emotional and cognitive responses increases.

80. Empathy and Moral Behavior Empathy lies at heart of some kinds of moral behavior Roots of empathy grow as children's ability to monitor and regulate their emotional and cognitive responses increases Empathy and development –Infants –Toddlers –Preschoolers

81. Emotional self-regulation Emotional self-regulation is the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity. Do you have ER? Always?

82. Emotional Self-Regulation Preschool children improve in emotional control Around age 2 –Talk about feelings and engage in regulation strategies Preschoolers –Develop more effective strategies and sophisticated social skills, learn to better cope with negative emotions –Learn to use language to express wishes –Become increasingly able to negotiate with others

83. Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers: Sources and Consequences Aggression Intentional injury or harm to another person relatively stable trait Early preschool years aggression Often addressed at attaining desired goal Declines through preschool years as does frequency and average length of episodes Extreme and sustained aggression is cause of concern

84. Kinds of Aggression Instrumental aggression Motivated by desire to obtain a concrete goal Higher in boys than girls Relational aggression Intended to hurt another person's feelings through non-physical means Higher in girls than boys Effective strategy when bigger strongerEffective strategy when smaller weaker A kind of asymmetrical warfare

85. Explanations for Aggressive Behavior Among Children FREUD: death drive leads aggressive actions and behavior LORENZ: fighting instinct found in all humans SOCIOBIOLOGISTS: strengthening species drives aggression SOCIAL-LEARNING: prior learning shapes aggression COGNITIVE: interpretation of others’ actions and situations influences aggression

86. Modeling Aggression

87. Viewing Violence on TV: Does It Matter? Overwhelming weight of research evidence suggests that observation of televised aggression does lead to subsequent aggression Children's television programs actually contain higher levels of violence (69 percent) than other types of programs (57 percent) In an average hour, children's programs contain more than twice as many violent incidents than other types of programs Evidence supports the notion that observation of media violence can lead to a greater readiness to act aggressively, bullying, and an insensitivity to the suffering of victims of violence

88. Effects of Video Game or Internet Playing on Children PositiveNegative

89. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Increasing Moral Behavior and Reducing Aggression Provide opportunities to observe others acting in a cooperative, helpful, prosocial manner Do not ignore aggressive behavior My View: Gender differences in intervention required Help preschoolers devise alternative explanations for others’ behavior My View: Be aware of cultural differences which can cause confusion Monitor preschoolers’ television viewing, particularly the violence that they view My View: Talk to children about what they see on TV