1. Welcome to Geology 104

2. Earth Science Geology Oceanography Meteorology Climate change

3. The Scientific Method

4. Steps of the Scientific Method Observe some aspect of the universe and collect facts about the observations Develop a tentative explanation, or hypothesis, about the observations Construct experiments to test the hypothesis Accept, modify or reject the hypothesis on the basis of extensive testing Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between hypothesis and experiment and/or observation.

5. When consistency is obtained the hypothesis becomes a theory: provides a coherent set of data which explain a class of phenomena. a framework within which observations are explained and predictions are made.

7. 1. Observe and Gather Data

8. 2. Formulate One or More Hypotheses

9. Test the Hypothesis or Hypotheses

10. Accept, reject or modify the hypothesis, based on whether testing supports the observation

11. Attributes of the Scientific Method It is unprejudiced; one does not have to believe a given researcher, one can redo the experiment and determine whether the results are valid It is repeatable: most experiments and observations are repeated many times The theory must be falsifiable; there must be some experiment or possible discovery that could prove the theory untrue.

12. The Nebular Theory The solar system began as dust and gas (from an exploding supernova?) which then collapsed due to gravity. The nebula contracted into a rotating disk. Repeated collisions of rocky and metallic material coalesced into asteroid, then planet-sized bodies. Age of the earth and solar system about 4.6 billion years (4600 million years). Heating and subsequent cooling of Earth caused heavy metals to sink to the interior and lighter elements to rise to the surface.

13. Earth in Space

14. Earth ’ s internal structure The separation of heavy and light elements caused a layered Earth consisting of: –Crust: silica (SiO 2 )- rich composition –Mantle: silica and iron composition –Core: iron and nickel composition The crust and mantle are further divided into “spheres” depending on density and physical state (e.g. solid or molten).

15. Earth ’ s “spheres” by physical state Lithosphere – rigid solid which make up the tectonic plates, includes both crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. Asthenosphere – partially molten “ weak ” layer directly beneath the lithosphere Mesosphere – lower mantle, mostly solid Core –outer core (molten) –inner core (solid)

16. Crust (part of the lithosphere)

17. Continental and Ocean Crust Continental crust –thicker (average 35-40 km) –older (up to 4 billion years old) –less dense than ocean crust. –varied composition (generally granitic). Ocean crust –thinner (averages 5-7 km ) –younger (200 million years old or less) –more dense and iron-rich –composed of dark volcanic basalt.

18. Example of the Scientific Method: From Continental Drift Hypothesis to Plate Tectonic Theory

19. Observation: Some of the boundaries of the continents look as though they had once fit together Initial hypothesis: In the geologic past, all the continents were together and are now moving apart (continental drift)

20. Prediction: You should find fossils of the same type at these now-separated continental boundaries

21. Prediction: You should find evidence of similar climates at the now-separated areas

22. Prediction: You should find matching rock types and orientation of mountain ranges at the now-separated areas

23. Continental Drift Hypothesis Rejected! How did the continents move through the oceans? Tidal influence of the moon? Experiments proved this to be false Continental crust plows through or slides over ocean crust? Experiments proved this to be false

24. Advancements in technology cause the rejected hypothesis to be modified.

25. Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis and Plate Tectonic Theory