1. 1-1 COBOL for the 21 st Century Nancy Stern Hofstra University Robert A. Stern Nassau Community College James P. Ley University of Wisconsin-Stout (Emeritus) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11th edition

2. 1-2 An Introduction to Structured Program Design in COBOL Chapter 1

3. 1-3 Chapter Objectives To familiarize you with Why COBOL is a popular business- oriented language. Programming practices and techniques History of COBOL Use of the current ANSI standard versions of COBOL Four divisions of a COBOL program

4. 1-4 Chapter Contents Computer Programming: An Overview Applications Program Development Process Nature of COBOL History of COBOL and the ANS Versions

5. 1-5 Chapter Contents Techniques for Improving Program Design Sample Programs Entering and Running a COBOL Program on Your Computer

6. 1-6 Computer Program A set of instructions that enables computer to process data Also called software Two types of computer programs –Operating system programs - control overall operations of computer –Applications programs - perform tasks required by users

7. 1-7 Applications Programs Written by applications programmer May provide quick solution to one-time problem –Displaying average grade for set of exam scores Or may be run on regularly scheduled basis –Program to print student transcripts each semester

8. 1-8 Customized Application Programs Written for specific users like doctors, car dealerships Necessary if user has special requirements

9. 1-9 Applications Package Written for general user who needs program to perform standard tasks Standard tasks include budgeting, scheduling payroll, etc. Cheaper, easier than writing customized program

10. 1-10 Program Languages Machine language Only language computer understands All programs executed on computer must be in machine language Machine language programs difficult to write

11. 1-11 Program Languages Symbolic language (like COBOL) English-like languages used to write programs Easier than writing programs in machine language Must be translated or compiled into machine language to run on computer

12. 1-12 Program Development Process 1.Determine Program Specifications 2.Design Program Using Program Planning Tools 3.Code and Enter Program 4.Compile Program 5.Test Program 6.Document Program

13. 1-13 1. Program Specifications Systems analysts, users and programmers develop specifications Specifications include: Description of input and output data Step-by-step processing required to convert input to output

14. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition 1. Program specifications –when a company decides to computerize a business application, a system analyst is assigned the task of designing the entire computerized application. –This system analyst works closely with users to determine such factors as output needs, how many program are required, and input requirements.

15. 1. Program specifications When a system analyst decides what customized programs are required, he prepares program specifications to be given to programmers so that they can perform their task. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition

16. 1. Program specifications Typically, the Program Specifications consist of the following: Record layout forms to describe the input and output Printer spacing charts for printed output

17. 1-17 Record Layouts Record layout forms describe format of input and output data Data names of each data item in record Location of each data item in record Size of each data item Number of decimal positions (for numeric data items)

18. Record Layouts Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition CodeEmpNoRegHrOvertimeHrHourlyRate FieldSizeData Type No. of Decimal position code empNo regHr overtimeHr hourlyRate 2544425444 Numeric 0022200222

19. 1-19 Printer Spacing Charts Printer spacing charts describe Spacing Layout of printed output Heading, detail, total lines Error messages

20. Printer Spacing Charts Headings are usually printed that contain report and page titles, dates, page numbers, and so on. Data must be spaced neatly across the page, allowing for margins. Sometime s additional lines for error messages or total are required. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition

21. Printer Spacing Chart Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition

22. Printer Spacing Chart Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition

23. 1-23 2. Design the Program Program planning tools used to map out structure and logic of program Flowcharts use block diagrams to represent logic Pseudocode uses English-like statements Hierarchy charts show relationships among sections of program

24. 1-24 3. Code and Enter Program Programmer writes and enters program into computer Program written in symbolic language (like COBOL) Called source program

25. 1-25 Source program in symbolic language Object program in machine language Translated by compiler 4. Compile Source Program Compiler is program that Checks source program for rule violations Translates source program into object program

26. 1-26 5. Test Program Test or debug program to ensure it contains no errors Check for two types of errors –Compile-Time Errors –Execution Errors

27. 1-27 Compile-Time Errors Errors detected by compiler during translation from COBOL to machine language Detects violations of programming rules –Misspelled reserved words –Missing punctuation Also called syntax errors

28. 1-28 Execution Errors Detected when program is run Logic error causes incorrect output –Sequence of instructions incorrect –Wrong instruction coded Run-time error if computer cannot execute instruction –Attempt to divide by zero –Attempt to read a file that cannot be found

29. 1-29 Debugging Techniques Desk checking Correcting syntax errors Program walkthroughs Executing the program

30. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES Desk Checking –Reviewing the program before and after keying –Desk checking will minimize the overall time it takes to debug a program. –Omitting desk checking phase can result in undetected logic errors that could take hours or even days to debug later on. –Experienced programmers carefully review their programs before and after keying them.

31. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES Correcting Syntax Errors –After a program has been translated or compiled, the computer will print a source listing aling diagnostic messages to point any rule violations or syntax errors. –Using the printed source list of the diagnostic messages to find and correct the errors –The programmer must then correct the errors and recompile the program before it can be run with test data.

32. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES Program Walkthroughs –After a program has been successfully compiled, manually stepping through the program with test data to see if it will produce the desired results. –Walkthroughs can help the programmer find logic and run-time errors more easily. –Walkthroughs may be performs directly from pseudocode, even prior to the actual coding..

33. Structured COBOL Programming, Stern & Stern, 9th edition DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES Detecting Logic Errors by Executing the Program –Often the most difficult and time- consuming part of debugging. –The preparation of test data is an extremely critical aspect of debugging. –The programmer should prepare data that will test every possible condition the program is likely encounter.

34. 1-34 6. Document the Program Documentation - formal set of procedures and instructions to specify how to use program Written for –Those working with output –Computer operators who run program –Maintenance programmers who make modifications to program

35. 1-35 Nature of COBOL Business-oriented language Standard language English-like language Relatively easy to understand COBOL is an abbreviation for COmmon Business Oriented Language

36. 1-36 History of COBOL Developed in 1959 as standard language to meet needs of business Committee to develop language convened by Department of Defense Included representatives from academia, business, computer manufacturers

37. 1-37 Standard Versions of COBOL 1960s 1968 1974 1985  wide variations in COBOL compilers  first COBOL standard set by American National Standards Institute (ANSI)  second ANSI standard to make COBOL more efficient, standardized  this ANSI standard incorporated structured programming techniques

38. 1-38 Current and Future Standards 1985 currently the most widely used 2008 is next standard –Approval expected in 2008 or so –Information on 2008 COBOL standard at http://www.ansi.org http://www.ansi.org

39. 1-39 Future of COBOL Likely to remain important language Older COBOL programs need to be updated Still used by many for new program development

40. 1-40 Use of COBOL About 200 billion lines of COBOL source code in use 5 billion new lines added each year Used by 42.7% of application programmers in medium to large U.S. companies $200 million in expected revenues for 2001

41. 1-41 Year 2000 Problem (Y2K) Year stored as two digits in older programs to save space 19 assumed as valid prefix for all years –95 represented year 1995 Invalid as prefix for years 2000 and beyond –00 could mean 1900 or 2000

42. 1-42 Year 2000 Problem (Y2K) Many calculations with dates incorrect starting in 2000 To find your age if you were born in 1970 Subtract 70 from 95 (95 - 70 = 25) Calculation incorrect for year 2000 and beyond 00 - 70 = -70 when age should be 30

43. 1-43 Year 2000 Problem (Y2K) To correct problem Billions of lines of code, many written in COBOL needed to be examined Code changed to use four digits for year Age, other calculations now correct 1995 - 1970 = 25 2000 - 1970 = 30

44. 1-44 Improving Program Design Two techniques used to develop programs that are easier to understand, test, debug and modify Structured Programming Top-Down Programming

45. 1-45 Structured Programming Eliminates use of GO TO statements –Allowed skipping to different sections of program without returning to starting point Program logic easier to follow with "GO- TO-less" programming

46. 1-46 Structured Programming Program divided into paragraphs Main paragraph or module controls logic flow using PERFORM statements Main module "performs" other modules when instructions in that module required Each module can be written and tested independently of others

47. 1-47 Top-Down Programming Another technique to make programs easier to understand, test, debug and modify Develop program like term paper –Develop outline first –Add details for each of main steps –Add further refinement for more complex steps

48. 1-48 Top-Down Programming For COBOL program Code main modules or routines first Code intermediate modules next Details deferred to minor modules and coded last

49. 1-49 Interactive vs Batch Programs Cobol suited for developing both types of programs Interactive programs Accept input data from keyboard Input data processed immediately Output (results) displayed on screen immediately

50. 1-50 Interactive vs Batch Programs Batch programs Process large volumes of input at periodic intervals Input data read in from files Output written to files

51. 1-51 Overview of the Four Divisions Every COBOL program contains up to four separate divisions in the following order:

52. 1-52 Overview of the Four Divisions IDENTIFICATION DIVISION –Identifies program to operating system –Provides documentation about program ENVIRONMENT DIVISION –Defines file-names –Describes devices used to store them –Not included in fully interactive programs

53. 1-53 Overview of the Four Divisions DATA DIVISION –Describes input and output format of data in files –Defines any constants and work areas PROCEDURE DIVISION –Contains instructions to read input, process it and create output

54. 1-54 Sample Interactive Program Purpose –to compute employee WAGES Input from keyboard –HOURS and RATE Processing –compute WAGES as HOURS x RATE Output displayed on screen –WAGES

55. 1-55

56. 1-56 Sample Interactive Program IDENTIFICATION DIVISION –One required entry, PROGRAM-ID –Names the program DATA DIVISION –Describes and defines storage for all data –Data defined in WORKING-STORAGE SECTION for interactive program

57. 1-57 Data Defined in Sample Program Keyed input fields (HOURS, RATE) Output fields (WAGES) Other fields used for processing (MORE-DATA)

58. 1-58 PICTURE Clause 01 level begins definition of each field PICTURE or PIC clause describes –Type of data Numeric (PIC 9) Nonnumeric (PIC X) –Size of field - determined by number of 9’s or X’s

59. 1-59 PICTURE Clauses RATE with PIC 99V99 includes V to show assumed decimal point position User enters data with decimal point –Program uses V to align data WAGES includes actual decimal point –Shown when value displayed on screen

60. 1-60 Giving Field Initial Value MORE-DATA with PIC XXX is nonnumeric field Assigned initial contents of YES by use of VALUE clause Value must be in quotation marks since MORE-DATA is nonnumeric field

61. 1-61 PROCEDURE DIVISION Set of instructions to be executed by program Organization of instructions planned before coding begins Pseudocode, an English-like description of program instructions, used for planning Describes program logic and order in which instructions will be executed

62. 1-62 PROCEDURE DIVISION PROCEDURE DIVISION includes one paragraph 100-MAIN List of instructions that follow make up paragraph Period follows last statement in paragraph (STOP RUN.) Main processing controlled by PERFORM … END-PERFORM loop

63. 1-63 PERFORM … END-PERFORM Repeats set of instructions as long as user enters YES in response to prompt "IS THERE MORE DATA (YES/NO)?" MORE-DATA initially contains YES so instructions in loop executed first time

64. 1-64 PERFORM … END-PERFORM When user enters NO as response –MORE-DATA set to "NO" and loop ends After loop, STOP RUN is executed, ending program

65. 1-65 PERFORM … END-PERFORM Statements in loop executed in order they are listed DISPLAY displays value in quotes or value of field on screen ACCEPT stores value user enters from keyboard in field MULTIPLY performs calculation to find WAGES

66. 1-66 Sample Batch Program In batch mode, data comes from input file instead of keyboard Data for each employee stored in a record in file on disk Employee name, hours and rate data called fields

67. 1-67 Sample Batch Program Calculated results (Wages) stored in file instead of displayed on screen For each input record –Record created and stored in output file –Includes employee name, hours, rate and computed wages –File intended for printing so spacing added between fields for readability

68. 1-68 COBOL Divisions All four divisions included for batch programs IDENTIFICATION DIVISION first with required PROGRAM-ID paragraph ENVIRONMENT DIVISION –INPUT-OUTPUT SECTION assigns input and output files to specific devices

69. 1-69 DATA DIVISION FILE SECTION describes format of input and output files Fields in records described using PICTURE clause Decimal point not stored in input records –Use V for implied decimal for alignment Use actual decimal point for fields in output record so it is printed

70. 1-70 PROCEDURE DIVISION Contains instructions to be executed by computer Instructions executed in order they appear Includes two paragraphs with period at end of each

71. 1-71 100-MAIN-MODULE OPENs files to be used by program Repeatedly READs in records (PERFORM … END-PERFORM) until there are no more Calls second paragraph 200-WAGE- ROUTINE to process each record CLOSEs files after all records read Ends program (STOP RUN)

72. 1-72 READ Statement Reads one record into program storage area Record must be in storage to use it Takes one of two actions depending on whether record was read

73. 1-73 READ Statement PERFORM instruction after NOT AT END executed when record read –Statements in paragraph 200-WAGE- ROUTINE executed to process record If no more records to be read, MOVE instruction after AT END executed –'NO ' moved to ARE-THERE-MORE- RECORDS, ends loop

74. 1-74 200-WAGE-ROUTINE First MOVE initializes PRINT-REC to blanks Then MOVEs name, hours, wages to output fields Calculates WAGES with MULTIPLY statement, MOVES it to output field WRITEs data in employee output record to print file

75. 1-75 Entering & Running a Program To type in and run a COBOL program on your computer system, you need to know how to: Log on and off of the computer Name COBOL files on the computer Use a text editor to key in, modify and save files Compile a COBOL source program to translate it into machine language Link or load the object program Run the object program

76. 1-76 Chapter Summary The Nature of COBOL –English-like language –Used widely for business programming –With new standard coming out soon, it is likely to remain important language

77. 1-77 Chapter Summary Use planning tools and good design techniques to improve program design Document programs well Carefully test and debug programs

78. 1-78 Chapter Summary COBOL programs divided into four divisions IDENTIFICATION DIVISION identifies program to operating system ENVIRONMENT DIVISION required for batch programs that operate on files

79. 1-79 Chapter Summary DATA DIVISION defines formats for all input, output and work areas needed –FILE SECTION required for batch programs that operate on files –WORKING-STORAGE SECTION for work fields or fields used in interactive programs

80. 1-80 Chapter Summary PROCEDURE DIVISION –Contains instructions to process input and produce output –Divided into paragraphs or modules

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