3. Animal Flight By Lisa Acorn

4. Outline Start with a presentation about animal flight We will build our own wings and test mine Finish by calculating what percentage of our body weights we’re able to generate lift for

5. A little background Four groups have evolved flapping flight Vertebrates: pterosaurs, birds and bats Invertebrate: insects

6. Invertebrates Insect wings evolved independently and consist of non living material and rods Can control movement of wing through pulling on the rods

7. Vertebrates Wings amongst the vertebrates evolved through the modification of an existing limb They have muscles that are able to control their wings

8. Muscles As the size of an animal increases, the cross sectional muscle to volume ratio decreases The strength of a muscle depends on its cross sectional area

9. Bird Muscles The pectoralis muscle in birds is very large. It can account for up to 35% of a bird’s body weight There are 49 other muscles associated with wing movement

10. Physics

11. Air Air is NOT nothing! Air is composed of different types of molecules: 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% others The density (mass/volume) of air is 1.2 kg/m 3 Air can create and react to forces

12. Forces Newton’s law states that a force is equal to mass X acceleration An action on an object that can alter the motion of that object (move/speed it up, stop/slow it or change its direction) Basically: a push or a pull

13. Forces Forces are vectors which means that they have both a magnitude and direction Forces in the same direction are added together; those in opposite directions are subtracted Pressure is defined as force per unit area

14. Forces of Flight Flight is a balance of four forces : weight, lift, drag and thrust (propulsion)

15. Thrust and Drag Thrust and drag are the forces that act in or opposed to the direction of movement Thrust refers to forces that are in the direction of movement Drag are forces that act in the opposite direction

16. Weight and Lift Weight acts in the downwards direction and is equal to mass X the acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s 2 ) Lift is the force that is perpendicular to the flow of air

17. Producing Lift Lift is produced when air is directed down Any shape will produce lift when moving through air (hand out car window) Airfoils are shapes that produce lift and minimize drag

18. Airfoils Generally have a rounded leading edge and a sharp trailing edge.

19. Bernoulli and Lift Air moving over the top moves faster According to Bernoulli faster moving air has a lower pressure There is a net force up

20. Common Misconception Due to the longer path length over the top of the wing the molecules above have to move faster to “catch up” with the ones below

21. Reality Air does flow faster over the top of the wing but it has nothing to do with “equal transit times” The deflection of air downwards leads to a partial vacuum above the wing into which other air molecules rush to fill So Bernoulli’s Equations still apply

22. Lift Bernoulli’s equation: P + 1/2 p v 2 = constant P = pressure, p = density v = velocity of air

23. P + 1/2 p v 2 = constant Note that since adding the two terms together yields a constant when one variable changes the other must change in a complementary way It is the square of the velocity that matters, so a small change in velocity will lead to a large change in pressure

24. Flapping Flight There are 2 phases in flapping flight The downstroke produces most of the thrust and lift The upstroke also contributes a small amount of lift but mostly produces drag

25. Take Off During take off there is no lift produced via air flow. Birds have to produce a large amount of force to displace enough air to achieve take off. There is evidence that birds rely heavily on power produced by their legs to achieve lift off. Some larger birds have to get a running start.

26. Take Off

27. Flapping Patterns There are many different patterns but the basic is: downstroke is forward and down, while upstroke is up and back Animals such as pigeons have a figure eight pattern None simply flap them in the vertical plane

28. Hovering Limited to small birds and insects Power requirement is much higher for hovering than for forward flying

29. Hovering Flapping Pattern The downstroke moves forward and horizontally At the end of the downstroke, the wing is rotated 180 o The upstroke is also horizontal but backwards The wing reverses the rotation and this repeats

30. The Challenge!

31. The Challenge In groups of 4 or 5 build a set of wings! Once you’ve completed your wings we will use a force platform to measure the maximum and average upward forces that you’re able to produce The group with the best set of wings will get a prize

32. What is the “best” set of wings? Three factors will be considered. –Results –Concept/Theory –Style

33. Bonus Challenge During your build time anyone who is interested may try out the wings that I’ve created The person who is able to generate the highest average upwards force will receive a prize

34. Consider the Following Surface Area Velocity Weight Flapping Pattern