1. Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Chapter 7
Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 1

2. Chapter Preview The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology Thinking
Intelligence
Language

3. The Cognitive Revolution
Cognition
Way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Shift away from behaviorism in 1950s
Computer analogy for human cognition and brain
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Cognitive Psychology
Approaches seeking to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that cannot be directly observed 3

4. The Computer Analogy 4

5. Thinking Manipulating information mentally Concepts Problem Solving
Reasoning and Decision Making
Thinking Critically and Creatively
Expertise 5

6. Concepts
Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics
Allow generalization
Allow association of experiences and objects
Aid memory
Provide clues about how to react to particular object or experience
Prototype Model
Comparison of item with most typical item in category 6

7. Problem Solving
Finding appropriate way to attain goal which is not readily available
Find and Frame Problems
Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
Subgoaling
Algorithms
Heuristics
Evaluate Solutions
Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions 7

8. Problem-Solving Strategies
Subgoaling
Setting intermediate goals
Defining intermediate problems
Algorithms
Strategies that guarantee solution to problem
Heuristics
Shortcut strategies that suggest solution to problem 8

9. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Fixation
Using prior strategy
Failing to look at problem from fresh, new perspective
Functional Fixedness
Failure to solve problem due to fixedness on usual function of something
Failure to “think outside the box” 9

10. The Maier String Problem10

11. Reasoning & Decision Making
Mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions
Inductive Reasoning
From specific observations to generalizations
Deductive Reasoning
From general case to specific instance
Decision Making
Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them 11

12. Biases in Decision Making
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to search for and use information that supports ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight Bias
Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that outcome was accurately predicted 12

13. Heuristics in Decision Making
Rules of thumb
Availability Heuristic
Prediction about possibility of event based on recalling or imagining similar events
Base Rate Fallacy
Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
Representativeness Heuristic
Tendency to make judgments about group membership based on match to group stereotype 13

14. Thinking Critically Thinking reflectively and productively
Evaluating evidence
Mindfulness
Being alert and mentally present for everyday activities
Open-Mindedness
Being receptive to other ways of looking at things 14

15. Thinking Creatively To think about something in novel/unusual ways
To devise unconventional solutions to problems
Divergent Thinking
Producing many solutions to same problem
Brainstorming
Convergent Thinking
Producing single best solution to problem
Creative thinkers do both. 15

16. Thinking Creatively Flexibility and playful thinking Inner motivation
Willingness to face risk
Objective evaluation of work 16

17. Intelligence Cultures vary in ways they define intelligence.
All-purpose ability . . .
to do well on cognitive tasks
to solve problems
to learn from experience 17

18. Measuring Intelligence
Validity
Extent to which test measures what it is intended to measure
Reliability
Extent to which test yields consistent, reproducible measure of performance
Standardization
Uniform procedures for administering and scoring
Norms, or performance standards for test 18

19. IQ Tests Mental Age (Binet) Intelligence Quotient (Stern)
Individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others
Intelligence Quotient (Stern)
Mental Age (MA) vs. Chronological Age (CA)
IQ = MA/CA * 100
Normal Distribution
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve 19

20. Normal Distribution of IQ20

21. Cultural Bias in IQ Testing
Culturally biased tests have favored people . . .
From urban, rather than rural, environments
Of middle, rather than low, socioeconomic status
Who are White, rather than African American
Culture-Fair (or Culture-Reduced) Tests
Intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased
Include questions familiar to people of all backgrounds
Or include no verbal questions
Raven Progressive Matrices 21

22. Raven Progressive Matrices22

23. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Genetic markers
Locations for intelligence on chromosomes 4, 6, and 22
Heritability
Proportion of observable differences explained by genes
Approximately 75% for intelligence
Increases with age, due to choice of environments
Statistic providing information about group, not individual
Can change over time and across groups 23

24. Environmental Influences
Impact of enriched environments and opportunities on intellectual ability
Flynn Effect
Phenomenon of rapidly increasing IQ test scores
May be due to rising levels of education, or other environmental factors
Intelligent behaviors always an option 24

25. Extremes of Intelligence
Giftedness
High intelligence and/or superior talent in some area
Product of both heredity and environment
Mental Retardation
Condition of limited mental ability
Low IQ
Difficulty adapting
Exhibited these characteristics by age 18 25

26. Mental Retardation Organic Retardation Cultural-Familial Retardation
Caused by genetic disorder or by brain damage
Cultural-Familial Retardation
Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage
Classification
Based on IQ
Mild, moderate, severe/profound
Based on degree of support required
Intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive 26

27. Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Analytical Intelligence
Creative Intelligence
Practical Intelligence
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Frames of Mind)
Verbal, Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist 27

28. Language Form of communication based on system of symbols
Infinite Generativity
Ability to produce endless number of meaningful sentences 28

29. Basic Properties of Language
Phonology
Sound system
Morphology
Rules for word formation
Syntax
Rules for combining words into phrases/sentences
Semantics
Meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics
Ability of language to communicate more than said 29

30. Language and Cognition
Language  Cognition
Language may determine/cause way we think (Whorf)
Or, language may merely reflect way we think
Cognition  Language
Mental retardation often, but not always, accompanied by reduced language proficiency
Language and thought related, but not part of single system 30

31. Biological Influences on Language
Language Universals (Chomsky)
Biological prewiring to learn language in humans
Imitation not adequate to learn language
Language and the Brain
Language processing in left hemisphere
Broca’s area  speech production
Wernicke’s area  language comprehension 31

32. Environmental Influences
Language as nothing more than chain of responses acquired through reinforcement (Skinner)
Language as complex learned skill
Not tenable, given rapid language development
Critical period
Special time during which language must develop
Biology and environment interact for language. 32

33. Language Development Over the Life Span
Babbling
Endlessly repeating sounds and syllables
Sorting through sounds for ones with meaning
First words
Two-word statements
Learning second language
Sensitive periods 33