1. The Theoretical and the Empirical Two Pillars of Your Ethnographic Essay

2. Theory: The Abstract Theory. Definition 4a from the Oxford English Dictionary. “Scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are held to be the general laws, principles, or causes of something known or observed.”

3. Theory: The Abstract Etymology: “Gr. a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle, abstr. n. f. (:*) spectator, looker on.” The word is related to our theater, which is of course a place one goes to be a spectator or viewer. According to Sharon Crowley, a theory, then, might be thought of as the viewpoint of the spectator at the theater who has a view of all of the goings-on of the stage. In one way, the person in the seats has a view of things an actor simply doesn’t. (But the reverse is also true.)

4. Theory: The Abstract  Theory, as it takes a view of a very wide range of different phenomena and seeks to explain their relationships to each other by use of categories, is abstract—separated from particulars E.g., literacy is a social practice (general) E.g., literacy is a social practice (general) E.g., sponsors seek to gain an advantage (general) E.g., sponsors seek to gain an advantage (general)  Theory-driven or theoretical papers are fueled by abstract explanations people have reached from observing several different particular cases, for which general explanations have been offered  Whatever is general has necessarily “lost touch with” what actually goes on, at least somewhat

5. Empirical: The Concrete Empirical. Definition 4 from the OED. “Pertaining to, or derived from, experience.”

6. Empirical: The Concrete Etymology: L. empricus, Gr. -, f. experience, f. skilled, f. in + trial, experiment. For “experience,” the word boils down to, “to put to the test.”

7. Empirical: The Concrete  An empirically driven paper is one informed by direct observation or experience  As such, empirical papers involve the writer’s involvement with “real life”—the people, places, sights and sounds of particular locations (contexts)  Your experience with your chosen sites will be a chance for you to “experiment,” in other words, to test the theories you have encountered in Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, and Resnick

8. Putting the Theoretical with the Empirical  Theories, as we said above, necessarily lose some touch with reality because they traffic in generalizations  It’s no stretch to say that theorizing is a sophisticated form of stereotyping  Like stereotyping, theorizing focuses on characteristics observed to be common to a group, and then often applies, however provisionally, those characteristics to all members of that group  But theories, just like stereotypes, can be shown to be insufficient, in need of modification, or just downright wrong  In some cases, you might find the theory, while dated, still holds

9. Putting the Theoretical with the Empirical  But how will you know whether the theory is still an adequate explanation?  You observe  This is where your site research comes in  You are out to test the validity of Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, and Resnick’s theories

10. Putting the Theoretical with the Empirical You should find, then, one of three (3) things: 1. Their theories are corroborated (confirmed). They hold up, point for point 2. Their theories are inadequate and in need of modification. You then add to the theory (still staying within the overall framework) by offering new ways of accounting for phenomena 3. The theories are downright useless. A new one must be drawn up

11. Theory and Observation: Mutually Informing  Theory needs observation Theory is often viewed as “high” because it “sees from above” Theory is often viewed as “high” because it “sees from above” However, direct observation (empirical research) must inform theory for it to be up-to-date, accurate and useful However, direct observation (empirical research) must inform theory for it to be up-to-date, accurate and useful  Observation needs theory Observation is often viewed as “low” or, alternately, “down-to-earth” Observation is often viewed as “low” or, alternately, “down-to-earth” Observation unguided by theory may run the danger of finding nothing but random, scattered facts Observation unguided by theory may run the danger of finding nothing but random, scattered facts  In academia, these two are kept in constant “dialogue”

12. Theory and Observation: Mutually Informing

13. Putting it on Paper Overall Structure  Introduction*  Methodology  Results  Discussion *Fuses elements of your proposal’s Introduction and Purpose sections

14. Introduction: To get us started …  Theory-situated papers begin with theory (“they say”)  Burkean parlor: You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. […] You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you. […] The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. (qtd. in Graff and Birkenstein 12)  You “enter the conversation” Also called “situating” the paper Also called “situating” the paper “Anchoring” in previous research “Anchoring” in previous research  Bring the unfamiliar academic audience up to speed Names and titles of works Names and titles of works Definitions Definitions Explanations Explanations

15. Introduction: To get us started …  Purpose must be plainly stated Research questions (with reference to site) Research questions (with reference to site) Roughly equivalent to a “thesis statement” Roughly equivalent to a “thesis statement” Thesis statements, however, make claims to be proven later in the text Thesis statements, however, make claims to be proven later in the text Research questions do not begin with claims; they are, to state the obvious, questions to be later answered in the text Research questions do not begin with claims; they are, to state the obvious, questions to be later answered in the text  May be subdivided as you see fit

16. Methodology: How’d ya do it?  When did you go to your site to do research?  How did you gain entry to the site?  Did you have the appropriate permission to use that site? (Signed consent form)  Did you observe, interview, or both?  How did you choose whom to interview?  Did you participate as an “insider” (“participant-observer”)?  How did you show the “insider” and “outsider” perspectives in your research?  Were there problems/obstacles?  Was this research intended to serve the community in some way?  How did you present your information ethically in your write- up?

17. Results: What’d ya find?  “Thick” descriptions/narrations ( passim* ) Scrupulous attention to detail Scrupulous attention to detail Frequent use of interviewee statements Frequent use of interviewee statements  Data so arranged to answer research questions  May be subdivided into sections as you see fit *An academic’s weakness for Latin terms: it means “throughout” or “here and there”

18. Discussion: Whaddya think?  What in your reading (theory) ties to what you saw?  What in the theory argues against what you saw?  What other sources, if any, in your background research relates to what you saw?  What other ideas could be explored with your research?  Why should this research be interesting/important to others?  Why was it interesting to you?  May be subdivided as you see fit

19. Discussion: Whaddya think?  The most important part of the paper since it is here that the findings of the results section are interpreted in light of previous literature  Whether the theory holds up or fails in new contexts will be gone into at some length  Here, the researcher is free to speculate and theorize about why the findings turned up as they did  As this section is the most important, it will also need to be very highly developed