1. Professor Christopher Ullman Christian Life College
Epistemology
Professor Christopher Ullman Christian Life College

2. Everyone has a concept of what is true/false
Everyone has a concept of what is true/false. Each person decides how important truth is to him. Each of you know of ways to test a statement to see if it is true. These underlying presuppositions govern our thoughts, words, choices, and actions.

3. Can we even define truth? Can we know truth?
 Consider these questions asked by thinking people
What is truth?
Can we even define truth?
Can we know truth?
Can we know truth with certainty?
Is truth merely opinion controlled by the dominant forces of our society?
How is it that so many people have so many different views of truth?
Is truth relative?
How can we say something is false if we have no way of determining what is true?

4. Some truth tests 
Pragmatism: truth is that which works. If something works, then it must be true.
Coherence: there is an essential internal harmony of ideas. If something does not harmonize with the ideas that already cohere, it may not be true.
Correspondence: truth corresponds to reality, identifies things as they actually are.

5. Poststructuralism is an intellectual movement that
completely rejects “binary oppositions” such as
true/false
right/wrong
good/evil, and
formulates views consistent with that rejection.
These dualistic concepts are believed to be rooted not in reality, but in modernistic philosophy that has “scripted” Western thought and culture. 

6. Postmodernism rejects the belief in universal absolute truth that transcends culture, time, and space by redefining it to say that truth is that which is
Created
Defined
Articulated by local (sub) communities.
Young people today are choosing a postmodern worldview over and against all other worldviews.

7. 5 Ways to Know Something Empirical: through sensed perceptions
Rational: through reason apart from the senses
Mystical: immediately, apart from the senses and reason
Pragmatical: by finding out what works
Authority: through a trusted source

8. Consider these questions asked by thinking people
Can we trust our senses?
What are the proper roles of reason and sense experience in knowledge?
Are our intuitions more dependable than our perceptions?
What is the relationship between faith and reason?
Is knowledge about God possible? If so, how?
Should we appeal to “mystical downloads” for spiritual knowledge?

9. 1. Reason alone (excluding faith) 2. Faith alone (excluding reason)
Sources of Knowledge
1. Reason alone (excluding faith)
2. Faith alone (excluding reason)
Faith + Reason (God created people to think rationally)
Intuition
Sensed perceptions
Authority

10. A Tale of Two Systems
Continental philosophers taught that human knowledge comes not originally or even primarily from sense experience, but from reason. This is rationalism.
Rene Descartes: I think, therefore I am
Baruch Spinoza: the essence of each and every thing is a way that God causes himself to exist
Gottfried Leibniz: we have innate ideas, but all ideas that come from the senses are confused

11. A Tale of Two Systems Some problems arose for the rationalists
The Theory of Ideas
“What you know when you perceive a brown table is the idea of a brown table.”
The key word here is know.
The Problem of the External World
How do we know there’s a world out there?
The Problem of Other Minds
How do I know that you have a mind?

12. A Tale of Two Systems The Rise and Fall of Empiricism
Rejecting rationalism and innate ideas, three British philosophers come rushing into the room:
John Locke: “The mind is a blank slate”
Sensed experience begins to fill it
Reflection arranges it
George Berkeley: “The objects of human knowledge are ideas, not things”
You cannot know the carrot, but you can know the idea “carrot”

13. A Tale of Two Systems
David Hume: all that is real consists of sensations, and these are unconnected to one another
What about things we do not personally experience? We cannot prove they are causally connected to anything else
So we accept out of custom or habit that one idea is caused by another
Knowledge boils down to non-rational operations of the soul
“We can stop our philosophical researches”

14. Ontological
The study of the nature of existence, or what it means “to be”:
Is basic reality found in matter or physical energy (the world we can sense), or spirit/spiritual energy?
Is reality lawful and orderly or chaotic?
Is reality fixed and stable or ever-changeable?
Is reality friendly, unfriendly, or neutral in regard to humanity?

15. Basic Question In Epistemology…
Is there truth independent of human experience?
A Priori knowledge
A Posteriori knowledge

16. A Priori Knowledge: Is independent of human awareness
Is true whether humans know/accept it or not
Exists prior to human experience
Traditional science has upheld the superiority of a priori knowledge as it represents the fixed and permanent world that is ‘uncontaminated’ by human knowers

17. A Posteriori Knowledge:
Requires human experience for verification of truth/knowledge
Modern philosophers claim a posteriori knowledge is superior, and that a priori knowledge does not even exist!

18. 3 Basic Positions on the Objectivity of Knowledge:
Humans are recipients in the knowledge process.
Humans are participants in the knowledge process.
Humans exist as ‘pure objects’ who become manufacturers of truth rather than recipients or participants

19. Sources of Knowledge:
Empirical Knowledge: composed of ideas formed from observable data
Sensory Knowledge: knowledge obtained through the Senses
Revelatory Knowledge: knowledge that is revealed through a transcendent or supernatural reality that breaks into the natural order/reality

20. Sources of Knowledge:
Authoritative Knowledge: accepted as truth because it comes from experts or is sanctioned over time by tradition
Rationalism/Reason: emphasizes the power of thought & what the mind contributes to knowledge, the senses are not enough
Intuition: knowledge that is not the result of conscious reasoning

21. Validity of Knowledge Corresponding Theory Coherence Theory
Pragmatic Theory

22. Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths
Correspondence Theory:
theory fits the data collected & analyzed through research
if the judgement corresponds with the facts it is true
method most often used by those working in the sciences

23. Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths
Coherence Theory:
places its trust in the consistency of harmony of all ones’ judgments
a judgment is true if it is consistent with other judgments that have previously been accepted as true
there is an agreement on the boundaries, logic & phenomenon of the theory

24. Validity of Knowledge - Tests of Truths
Pragmatic Theory:
there is NO such thing as static or absolute truth
people know only their own experiences
the test of truth is in its utility, workability, or satisfactory consequences

25. Epistemology What is Epistemology?
“The theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge.”
—Webster’s Dictionary
“The branch of philosophy that is concerned with the theory of knowledge. It is an inquiry into the nature and source of knowledge, the bounds of knowledge, and the justification of claims to knowledge.”
—Feinberg
Reference:
Feinberg quote is taken from The Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, “Epistemology.”

26. “Today evangelical Christians stand at a greater distance from those with whom we communicate than we did just 20 years ago. At that time, even those who rejected Christianity were prepared to discuss whether the evidence for Christianity’s truth was adequate. Today, this is much less frequently the case. Before we can broach the question of whether the Christian gospel is true, we have to establish that such a thing as truth exists.”

27. A Conversation Between Protagoras and Socrates (4th Century B.C.)
Protagoras: Truth is relative. It is only a matter of opinion.
Socrates: You mean that truth is mere subjective opinion?
Protagoras: Exactly. What is true for you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me. Truth is subjective.
Socrates: Do you really mean that? That my opinion is true by virtue of its being my opinion?

28. A Conversation Between Protagoras and Socrates (4th Century B.C.)
Protagoras: Indeed I do.
Socrates: My opinion is: Truth is absolute, not opinion, and that you, Mr. Protagoras, are absolutely in error. Since this is my opinion, then you must grant that it is true according to your philosophy.
Protagoras: You are quite correct, Socrates.

29. Epistemology Self-defeating statements:
“I cannot speak a word in English.”
“My wife has never been married.”
“We cannot know anything about God.”
“There is no such thing as truth.”
“Truth cannot be known.”

30. Epistemology A short history of western civilization: Three periods:
Premodern ( A.D.)
Modern ( A.D.)
Postmodern (1960-present)
Presentation Notes:
It is important that you view the video on epistemology to understand how to present this survey.
Video Reference:
Web: 19:00
Reason: Major in Math, engineer.
Tradition: Largest immediate family
Bible: Person who has the most Bible verses memorized.

31. Epistemology 400 1600 1960 Premodern Modern Postmodern
Presentation Notes:
It is important that you view the video on epistemology to understand how to present this survey. In the video the stage of truth is illustrated historically to help the students understand why we are in a postmodern world of relativism.
To help build the stage of truth, use people to represent each source of revelation.
Reason: Major in Math, engineer.
Tradition: Largest immediate family
Bible: Person who has the most assigned Bible verses memorized.
After the presentation, you should challenge people with the question, “What should the Christian stage of truth look like?” This stage of truth is the purpose of Introduction to Theology.
Video Reference:
Web: IT3b Epistemology 19:00min
Premodern
1600
Modern
1960
Postmodern

32. PRE-MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN
TRUTH INCLUDES
HEAVEN
GOD
EARTH
NATURE
OTHERS
SELF
THE TRUTH IS
UP THERE
AND
OUT THERE

33. PRE-MODERN WORLD Embraced the objectivity of truth
The preference was for a Platonist, or neo-Platonist notion of reality
There is an objective, or external realm that is transcendent
“Reality existed independently of any individual apprehension of it”
For the Christian pre-moderns, this independently existing realm of transcendence was the mind of God. Erickson, Evangelical Interpretation, 100.
There was a belief in the referential understanding of language; that is, “language referred to something beyond itself,” Erickson, EI, 100.
When we consider the pre-modern world, we enter into a time when the objectivity of truth was generally recognized. Of course, not everyone in the Pre-modern world would have accepted this very broad and unnuanced assertion. After all, there were Sophists, Cynics and skeptics. But, from the fifth century on, under the influence of Socrates and his student Plato, the intellectual world embraced a Platonist, or neo-Platonist notion of reality.
For Plato, there was an objective, or external realm that is transcendent, the realm of ideas, a spiritual realm that is most real (discussed in The Republic)
The world around us is but a shadow of reality
“Reality existed independently of any individual apprehension of it”
For the Christian pre-moderns, this independently existing realm of transcendence was the mind of God. Erickson, Evangelical Interpretation, 100
There was a belief in the referential understanding of language; that is, “language referred to something beyond itself.” Erickson, EI, 100
“Language does not siply refer to other language, but to something extralinguistic.” Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 15.

34. PRE-MODERN WORLD
There was belief in the “Correspondence Theory of Truth” which asserted that “true ideas are those that accurately correspond to the state of affairs as it is.”
In terms of hermeneutics, the pre-modern period accepted that “the meaning of a text was within that text in a rather literal or straightforward fashion Hermeneutics was in this approach virtually equivalent to exegesis.”
The premodern understanding of reality was teleological. There was believed to be a purpose or purposes in the universe.”
There was belief in the “Correspondence Theory of Truth” which asserted that “true ideas are those that accurately correspond to the state of affairs as it is.” Erickson, EI, 100
“Propositions are true if they correctly describe the realities they purport to describe, false if they do not.” Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith, 15
In terms of hermeneutics, the pre-modern period accepted that “the meaning of a text was within that text in a rather literal or straightforward fashion Hermeneutics was in this approach virtually equivalent to exegesis.” Erickson, EI, 101
“The pre-modern understanding of reality was teleological. There was believed to be a purpose or purposes in the universe.” Erickson, PTF, 15
There were reasons for things (not only in terms of efficient cause
But also in terms of “final” cause, Ibid.
“There was a pattern to history, which was outside of it,” Ibid.
From a Christian perspective, an all-knowing, all-powerful God created all that is and did so with intentionality- there is a direction, a goal to creation. Think of the pattern in Augustine’s City of God- the struggle between the City of God, City of Man
Creation
Fall
Redemption
Consummation

35. MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN
TRUTH INCLUDES
EARTH
INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE
REASON ONLY
THE TRUTH IS
OUT THERE

36. Epistemology Postmodern Transition 1900-1960 Modern
Presentation Notes:
This slide explains that we, according to most scholars, are in the middle to late stages of the transition period into what has been called the postmodern period.
This slide usually ends the third session.

37. POST-MODERNISM: THE TIME AND WORLDVIEW WHEN
TRUTH INCLUDES
INDIVIDUALS GROUPED IN COMMUNITIES
THE TRUTH IS
ONLY IN HERE

38. POST-MODERNISM: Impact
Ideas have legs! It is impossible to understand postmodernism without noting its impact on our culture
What begins in the ethereal realm of the academy eventually will show up in popular culture
The Arts
Architecture
Literature
What you believe will eventually show up in how you live. For a period of about 40 years, the western world has increasingly embraced the theoretical foundations of postmodernism and, consequently, the cultural manifestations of these foundations.
Postmodernism has transformed the academic community even as it has turned our society on its head.
As Veith notes, “Whereas classical scholarship sought the true, the beautiful, and the good, the postmodernist academy seeks ‘what works.’ The traditional academic world operated by reason, study, and research; postmodernist academia is governed by ideological agendas, political correctness, and power struggles.” Postmodern Times, 58. Of course, this truncated focus in the academic world fosters a culture that:
Has lost its sense of purpose (telos) or direction (no metanarratives)
“Gives” meaning to life rather than finding meaning in life (the meaning of the text is the meaning you bring to the text)
Embraces mutually exclusive (logically) principles and practices (no absolutes)
Can you think of some specific ways our culture lives out these underlying principles?
We will now look at some specific ways in which postmodernist thinking has influenced the way we live.

39. Truth and Tolerance
“In Postmodernism, there is no objective, universal truth; there is only the perspective of the group In postmodernism, all viewpoints, all lifestyles, all beliefs and behaviors are regarded as equally valid Tolerance has become so important that no exception is tolerated.”
–Charles Colson,
Reference:
Charles Colson How Now Shall We Live? 23

40. Modernist Objections to Christianity
What about all the contradictions?
God is just a crutch. Religion was invented by man.
Jesus was just a man.
The Bible we have today is not the same as when it was written two thousand years ago.
I don’t believe in what I can’t see.
Evolution has proven Christianity to be wrong.
Presentation Notes:
This slide is usually first slide on the fourth class session. It proceeds the discussion about the paper, “Representing Christ to a Postmodern World.”
Notice the rational element to these contradictions. These objections are appeal to facts and evidence that can be demonstrated.
Illustration:
Exercise: When you work out, you have to shock your muscles by getting out of a routine in order to promote growth. It is the same thing with our theology. A person cannot truly grow if they are stuck in a routine that does not challenge them in a new way.
Why did the chicken cross the road: This is a good illustration to re-open the postmodern issue.
THE BIBLE: And God came down from the heavens, and He said unto the chicken, "Thou shalt cross the road." And the chicken crossed the road, and there was much rejoicing COLONEL SANDERS: I missed one? L.A. POLICE DEPARTMENT: Give us five minutes with that chicken and we'll find out. RICHARD M. NIXON: The chicken did not cross the road. I repeat, the chicken did not cross the road. I don't know any chickens. I have never known any chickens.
MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.: I envision a world where all chickens will be free to cross roads without having their motives called into question.
GEORGE W. BUSH
Because he made a promise to cross the road and a promise made is a promise kept.
AL GORE
I do not identify with that chicken—nor any other chicken. I am my own man. GRANDPA: In my day, we didn't ask why the chicken crossed the road. Someone told us that the chicken crossed the road, and that was good enough for us. ARISTOTLE: It is the nature of chickens to cross the road. SADDAM HUSSEIN: This was an unprovoked act of rebellion and we were quite justified in dropping 50 tons of nerve gas on it.
BILL CLINTON: I did not cross the road with THAT chicken. What do you mean by chicken? Could you define chicken please? CAPTAIN JAMES T. KIRK: To boldly go where no chicken has gone before. FREUD: The fact that you are at all concerned that the chicken crossed the road reveals your underlying insecurity. EINSTEIN: Did the chicken really cross the road, or did the road move beneath the chicken?
POSTMODERN:
It is impossible to know why the chicken crossed the road. The chicken himself does not even know why. If anyone thinks that they know the answer, that is fine, and I am glad that they have found their answer, but they have no right to try to push their beliefs upon me.

41. Modernist Objections to Christianity
The Bible is a myth full of fairy tales.
How did Noah get all of the animals on the Ark?
There are no such thing as miracles.
Do you really believe in the story of Adam and Eve?

42. Postmodernist Objections to Christianity
If God exists why is there evil?
The inquisition and the Crusades show that Christianity is oppressive.
Christianity is a way to God but not the only way.
Christianity is arrogant and exclusive.
How do you know that your Bible is better than other religious writings?
Why does God allow bad things to happen to good people?
Presentation Notes:
Notice the emotional element to all of these questions. The postmodernist is not so concerned about the facts of the case, but its fairness.

43. Postmodernist Objections to Christianity
What about those who have never heard?
The church is full of hypocrites.
Why would God send anyone to Hell?
The God of the OT is cruel, partial, and unjust.

44. Modernism vs. Postmodernism: Objections to Christianity
Modernist
Postmodernist
Facts
Rationality
Evidence
Fairness
Relationships
Emotion`
Presentation Notes:
Following this slide, go through the paper, “Representing Christ to a Postmodern World.” Challenge people asking them about essentials and non-essentials.

45. Modern View of Truth
Correspondence view of truth: (1) Truth is an objective reality that exists whether someone believes it or not, (2) and (to the modernist) that objective reality has no definite basis.
Presentation Notes:
Explain objective truth: Truth that is not bound by any time, culture, or personal opinion.
Illustration:
“The Inch”: Everyone is aware of the concept of what an inch is. You may have a ruler on you that measures by inches. But how do you know that the space allotted for the inch on your ruler is really and inch. How do you know that when they made your ruler it was not off just a little? And the ruler from which they made your ruler was not off a slight bit as well? This could go on and on to the point that what we think of as an inch is really far from an inch. How would anyone know? The answer is that “The Inch” is in Washington at the Smithsonian. It is this standard that all the inches must measure up to. There is an objective ruler from which to measure. There is an objective truth concerning the inch that exists and judges all other inches. This is what postmoderns would deny concerning truth. They would state that all truth is relative and subject without any objective standard up to which they must measure.

46. Modern View of Truth
True statements are that which correspond to that objective reality.
False statements are those that do not correspond to that objective reality.

47. Modern View of Truth Law of non-contradiction does apply
A ≠ -A at the same time and in the same relationship.

48. Modern View of Truth What is an example?
Key Motto: Man can and will know all truth.
Presentation Notes:
If the Bible promotes a geocentric solar system, and science evidences a heliocentric universe, one of them is wrong.

49. Postmodern View of Truth
Relativism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by some group.
Subjectivism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by each individual.
Pragmatism: what is right/wrong, true/false is determined by what works.
Presentation Notes:
Relativism and Subjectivism are many times used interchangeably, but this distinction is helpful as some people would hold primarily to one or the other.
Examples of pragmatism would be people’s pragmatic views of divorce (if it makes me happier, ultimately it was right), understanding of ministry success (if there are a lot of people, God is behind it), and the American Revolution (since it was so successful, it was right).

50. Postmodern View of Truth
What is an example?
Law of non-contradiction does not apply
A = -A at the same time and in the same relationship.
No objective truth
Key Motto: The truth cannot be known.
Presentation Notes:
Example 1: “I might not agree with the homosexual lifestyle, but that does not mean that others have to hold to my opinion” (subjectivism).
Example 2: “You believe in Christianity because you come from a Christian culture. Those from other cultures are not bound to believe what you believe because they have learned things differently” (relativism).

51. Postmodern View of Truth
Religious Spin on Postmodern Epistemology
Universalism: All will make it to Heaven.
Pluralism: Many ways to God that are equally valid.
Syncretism: Assimilation of differing beliefs and practices.
Inclusivism: Salvation is only through Christ, but Christ may be revealed in other religions.
Presentation Notes:
Syncretism: Israel in the Old Testament is continually falling into syncretism as they intermingled Yawehism with pagan religions and practices (e.g. sacrificing on the “high places” (1 Kings 3:3). Today, syncretism is expressed in many different ways. Interfaith prayer services, Catholic Buddhists, New Age Christians, Postmodern Christians (or Christians who believe in relativism or universalism) are all examples of syncretism.
Inclusivism: This is a more subtle influence of postmodernism on Christianity. The idea is that Christ’s blood is the only way that anyone will make it to heaven, but knowledge of Christ, while better, is not necessary to make it to heaven. God may choose to apply Christ’s blood to those who have never heard of Christ as long as they are doing the best they can following the dictates of their conscious. This is a hard position to argue against since most Christians are inclusivists when it comes to infants who die or Old Testament Saints, believing that both groups are in heaven even though they never actually heard and believed that Christ died for their sins and rose from the grave. Roman Catholicism, since Vatican II, holds to an inclusivistic view of salvation. Mel Gibson expressed this during an interview concerning The Passion of the Christ when he was asked if Christ was the only way. He responded, “No, he is just the easiest way.” Now that you have created the tension, I would leave this question unresolved unto it is covered in Soteriology and Sanctification.

52. ENGAGING THOSE WITH POSTMODERN WORLDVIEWS
Acknowledge your culture-encoded version of Christianity
Affirm truth, love and compassion
Magnify the importance of faith perspectives
Show respect
Learn to listen to and tell postmodern stories

53. The Second Vatican Council: Roman Catholicism slides into universalism
“But the plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the creator. In the first place among these there are the Moslems, whom professing to hold the faith of Abraham, along with us adore the one and merciful god, who on the last day will judge mankind. Those also can attain salvation who through no fault of their own do not know the gospel of Christ or his church, yet sincerely seek god and, moved by grace, strive by their deeds to do his will as it is known to them through the dictates of conscience.”
Q. Why support mission evangelism any longer?
Reference:
John H. Leith, Creeds of the Churches, 467.

54. Christian View of Truth
What is the Christian view of truth?
Correspondence view of truth: (1) Truth is an objective reality that exists whether someone believes it or not, (2) and that objective reality has God alone as its objective basis.
Presentation Notes:
Using “The Inch” illustration again, describe God as “The Inch” to which all truth must ultimately correspond. Be sure to explain that there is no basis for truth without the existence of a transcendent Creator. If the modernist are right and there is no God, then the postmodernists are right that there is no truth. They are both inconsistent with regards to the relationship between there epistemology and theology.

55. Christian View of Truth
The law of non-contradiction is a foundational necessity to all truth.
God cannot even violate this principle since it is a logical impossibility.
Presentation Notes:
Ask people to react to this last statement.
Give example of things that God cannot do:
Cannot lie (Titus 1:2).
Cannot change (1 Sam. 15:29).
Cannot act against his own nature.
Cannot make a stone so big that he cannot pick it up.
The main point that needs to be made is that God cannot deny any attribute of his character. Rationality is an attribute of his character; it is not an exception to this rule.