1. Arguments for the existence of God Cosmological argument Cosmological argument Teleological argument Teleological argument Moral argument Moral argument Resurrection Resurrection Personal Experience Personal Experience

2. Kalam Cosmological Argument The argument: The argument: 1. Everything that begins to exist has a cause 2. The universe began to exist 3. Therefore the universe has a cause What are the properties of this cause? What are the properties of this cause? Premise 1 considered intuitively obvious Premise 1 considered intuitively obvious Historically atheists have claimed that the universe is eternal and uncaused Historically atheists have claimed that the universe is eternal and uncaused Most effort went into justifying premise 2 Most effort went into justifying premise 2 Al-Ghazali argued that an infinite sequence of causes cannot exist – therefore the universe must have a beginning Al-Ghazali argued that an infinite sequence of causes cannot exist – therefore the universe must have a beginning

3. Arguments for a Beginning Two types of argument Two types of argument Philosophical Philosophical Scientific Scientific

4. Philosophical Arguments for Beginning A universe without a beginning requires an infinite sequence of causes A universe without a beginning requires an infinite sequence of causes Cannot form an infinite by successive addition Cannot form an infinite by successive addition Actual infinites lead to absurdities (Hilbert’s Hotel) Actual infinites lead to absurdities (Hilbert’s Hotel) David Hilbert (1862-1943): David Hilbert (1862-1943): Infinites are only a concept in the mind Infinites are only a concept in the mind Infinites occur nowhere in reality Infinites occur nowhere in reality People confuse big numbers with the infinite numbers People confuse big numbers with the infinite numbers The universe is very big, but not infinitely big The universe is very big, but not infinitely big It is finite in matter, energy, space and time It is finite in matter, energy, space and time

5. Scientific Reasons for a beginning Today, premise 2 is generally accepted for scientific reasons: Today, premise 2 is generally accepted for scientific reasons: Second law of thermodynamics Second law of thermodynamics Entropy constantly increasing Entropy constantly increasing Why are the stars still burning? Why are the stars still burning? Big Bang theory Big Bang theory Universe constantly expanding Universe constantly expanding Began from a singularity a finite time ago Began from a singularity a finite time ago Standard Model: the singularity marked the beginning of: Standard Model: the singularity marked the beginning of: Matter Matter Energy Energy Space Space Time Time

6. Alternatives? Infinite sequence of universes? Infinite sequence of universes? Speculative Speculative No evidence No evidence Unobservable Unobservable Un-testable Un-testable Cannot be past eternal Cannot be past eternal Closed off by Borde, Guth & Vilenkin Theorem (2006) Closed off by Borde, Guth & Vilenkin Theorem (2006)

7. Current Status Today, premise 2 is generally accepted for scientific reasons: Today, premise 2 is generally accepted for scientific reasons: Premise 1 (Everything that begins to exist has a cause) is challenged today Premise 1 (Everything that begins to exist has a cause) is challenged today Some atheists claim the universe popped into existence uncaused out of nothing Some atheists claim the universe popped into existence uncaused out of nothing Smoke and mirrors Smoke and mirrors Redefine nothing to be something Redefine nothing to be something “Nothing comes from nothing. Nothing ever will” (The Sound of Music) “Nothing comes from nothing. Nothing ever will” (The Sound of Music)

8. Common Objection If God made the universe, then who made God? If God made the universe, then who made God? Answer: Answer: No one. God is eternal and has no beginning. God was not made or created and is uncaused. No one. God is eternal and has no beginning. God was not made or created and is uncaused. The argument can be stated crudely : The argument can be stated crudely : There must be something that is eternal and uncaused – otherwise we would not be here There must be something that is eternal and uncaused – otherwise we would not be here That something must be either the universe or God That something must be either the universe or God It is not the universe It is not the universe Therefore it must be God Therefore it must be God

9. The Nature of the Cause The start of the universe marked the beginning of energy, matter, space and time The start of the universe marked the beginning of energy, matter, space and time Thus the cause of the universe must possess the following properties: Thus the cause of the universe must possess the following properties: Transcendent: Transcendent: Non-physical Non-physical Timeless Timeless Spaceless Spaceless Powerful Powerful Personal (makes decisions) Personal (makes decisions)

10. Fine Tuning Argument Scientists used to believe evolution of life was inevitable Scientists used to believe evolution of life was inevitable Discoveries in last 40 years have shown this to be wrong Discoveries in last 40 years have shown this to be wrong Initial conditions of universe and physical constants are extraordinarily finely tuned to enable any possible form of life Initial conditions of universe and physical constants are extraordinarily finely tuned to enable any possible form of life

11. Initial Conditions Examples of initial conditions: Examples of initial conditions: Rate of expansion of universe Rate of expansion of universe Mass density of universe Mass density of universe Balance between matter and anti-matter Balance between matter and anti-matter

12. Example - Formation of elements Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons Protons repel each other Protons repel each other Strong nuclear force (gs) binds nuclei Strong nuclear force (gs) binds nuclei If gs 2% stronger, no hydrogen If gs 2% stronger, no hydrogen No water, no hydrocarbons, no life No water, no hydrocarbons, no life If gs 2% weaker, only hydrogen If gs 2% weaker, only hydrogen No other elements, no life No other elements, no life Critical for formation of atomic table Critical for formation of atomic table No Darwinian explanation No Darwinian explanation

13. Fine Tuning “Goldilocks Effect” - The universe is just right to permit life. “Goldilocks Effect” - The universe is just right to permit life. About 12 physical constants and 12 initial conditions are finely tuned to enable the universe to be life permitting About 12 physical constants and 12 initial conditions are finely tuned to enable the universe to be life permitting

14. Examples of Numbers 1,000,000 = 10 6 1,000,000 = 10 6 The universe is claimed to be 10 17 seconds old The universe is claimed to be 10 17 seconds old There are 10 80 atoms in known universe There are 10 80 atoms in known universe Alteration of weak force constant (gw) by 1 in 10 100 would prevent life Alteration of weak force constant (gw) by 1 in 10 100 would prevent life Alteration of cosmological constant (Λ) by 1 in 10 120 would prevent life Alteration of cosmological constant (Λ) by 1 in 10 120 would prevent life Probability of low entropy beginning of universe is 1 in W. W is Penrose number = 1 followed by 10 123 zeros. Probability of low entropy beginning of universe is 1 in W. W is Penrose number = 1 followed by 10 123 zeros.

15. Fine Tuning Argument 1. The fine tuning of the constants in the laws of physics and the Big Bang initial conditions are due to Law, Chance or Design. 2. The fine tuning is not due to Law or Chance. 3. Therefore it is due to design.

16. Multi-verse Theory Current state of play: Current state of play: The universe was designed by a Designer, or The universe was designed by a Designer, or There are an infinite number of universes with random physical laws and we happen to live in a lucky one There are an infinite number of universes with random physical laws and we happen to live in a lucky one Multiple universes cannot be observed or tested Multiple universes cannot be observed or tested Multi-verse must be finely tuned Multi-verse must be finely tuned If there are multi-verses, we would not expect to see the universe that we do If there are multi-verses, we would not expect to see the universe that we do Other configurations are far more probable Other configurations are far more probable Which option is more plausible? Which option is more plausible?

17. The Duck Test Dawkins refers to “the illusion of design”, but... Dawkins refers to “the illusion of design”, but... If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, waddles like a duck and quacks like a duck, then perhaps it is a duck. If it looks like a duck, swims like a duck, waddles like a duck and quacks like a duck, then perhaps it is a duck.

18. Designer Properties Highly intelligent Highly intelligent Has a mind Has a mind

19. Moral Argument The cosmological and teleological arguments claim that there is a Creator and Designer of the universe The cosmological and teleological arguments claim that there is a Creator and Designer of the universe Is He interested in us? Is He interested in us? Deism: God is not interested in us Deism: God is not interested in us Theism: God is interested in us Theism: God is interested in us The moral argument implies that God is interested in us The moral argument implies that God is interested in us Moral argument does not claim that atheists are immoral Moral argument does not claim that atheists are immoral We are all moral, but why? We are all moral, but why?

20. Moral Argument Moral argument: Moral argument: 1. If God does not exist then objective moral values do not exist 2. Objective moral values do exist 3. Therefore God exists What are Objective moral values? What are Objective moral values? Objective moral values are valid and binding whether people believe them or not Objective moral values are valid and binding whether people believe them or not Relative moral values are matter of personal taste Relative moral values are matter of personal taste Atheism implies that there is no basis for objective moral values. Atheism implies that there is no basis for objective moral values.

21. Premise 1 If God does not exist then objective moral values do not exist If God does not exist then objective moral values do not exist This admitted to be true by atheists This admitted to be true by atheists

22. Michael Ruse The position of the modern evolutionist is that human beings have an awareness of morality, because such an awareness is of biological worth. Morality is a biological adaptation no less than are hands and feet and teeth. Considered as a rationally set of justifiable claims about an objective something, ethics is illusory. I appreciate that when somebody says “Love thy neighbor as thyself”, they think they are referring above and beyond themselves. Nevertheless, such reference is truly without foundation. Morality is just an aid to survival and reproduction, and any deeper meaning is illusory. The position of the modern evolutionist is that human beings have an awareness of morality, because such an awareness is of biological worth. Morality is a biological adaptation no less than are hands and feet and teeth. Considered as a rationally set of justifiable claims about an objective something, ethics is illusory. I appreciate that when somebody says “Love thy neighbor as thyself”, they think they are referring above and beyond themselves. Nevertheless, such reference is truly without foundation. Morality is just an aid to survival and reproduction, and any deeper meaning is illusory.

23. 2 nd Premise If Moral values and duties are not objective then If Moral values and duties are not objective then They are just a matter of opinion They are just a matter of opinion We have no right to judges others actions We have no right to judges others actions Morality is not binding... but Morality is not binding... but People only maintain that moral values are relative until faced with examples People only maintain that moral values are relative until faced with examples Was the holocaust evil regardless of who won the war? Was the holocaust evil regardless of who won the war? Is paedophilia Ok? Paedophiles think it is Ok. Is paedophilia Ok? Paedophiles think it is Ok. Is raping babies Ok? Is raping babies Ok? Most people will recoil in horror. Most people will recoil in horror. As soon as we admit that raping babies is objectively bad then we affirm that objective moral values do exist As soon as we admit that raping babies is objectively bad then we affirm that objective moral values do exist

24. Implications Moral argument affirms that God is interested in our values and what we do Moral argument affirms that God is interested in our values and what we do We now affirm belief in a God who is interested in us We now affirm belief in a God who is interested in us

25. God in History In the past God spoke to our forefathers through the prophets at many times and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son (Hebrews 1:1) In the past God spoke to our forefathers through the prophets at many times and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son (Hebrews 1:1) God is there and He has spoken (Francis Schaefer) God is there and He has spoken (Francis Schaefer)

26. Widely Accepted Facts Historians take the NT seriously as a source of historical information about Ancient Near East Historians take the NT seriously as a source of historical information about Ancient Near East General agreement by historians on following historical facts General agreement by historians on following historical facts Jesus was crucified, died and was buried by Joseph of Arimathea Jesus was crucified, died and was buried by Joseph of Arimathea On the Sunday morning his tomb was empty On the Sunday morning his tomb was empty The disciples believed they saw appearances of the risen Christ The disciples believed they saw appearances of the risen Christ The origin of the early church was based on the belief in the resurrection The origin of the early church was based on the belief in the resurrection

27. Attempted Explanations Naturalistic Hypotheses Naturalistic Hypotheses Conspiracy Conspiracy Apparent Death Apparent Death Displaced Body Displaced Body Hallucination Hallucination None of these explain the evidence None of these explain the evidence The NT claim that God raised Jesus from the dead does explain the evidence The NT claim that God raised Jesus from the dead does explain the evidence Divine miracle on our hands Divine miracle on our hands Therefore God exists Therefore God exists

28. Personal Experience As a philosophy, it works As a philosophy, it works God can also be personally known God can also be personally known Knowledge is accessible to ordinary people Knowledge is accessible to ordinary people My experience My experience If you seek God, you will find him if you search for him with all your heart (Jeremiah 29:13) If you seek God, you will find him if you search for him with all your heart (Jeremiah 29:13)

29. Summary Atheism versus theism Atheism versus theism

30. Atheism No viable explanation for origin of universe No viable explanation for origin of universe Unintuitive and incomplete account for design Unintuitive and incomplete account for design A naturalistic account implies denial of A naturalistic account implies denial of Freedom of the will Freedom of the will Human responsibility Human responsibility Reliability of human thought Reliability of human thought Reality of human consciousness Reality of human consciousness First of all man lost his soul, then he lost his mind, then he lost consciousness First of all man lost his soul, then he lost his mind, then he lost consciousness Loss of meaning and purpose Loss of meaning and purpose Atheism logically forces us to deny what we intuitively know to be true Atheism logically forces us to deny what we intuitively know to be true

31. Theism Theism has greater explanatory power: Theism has greater explanatory power: Creation of universe out of nothing Creation of universe out of nothing Design in the universe Design in the universe Basis for objective morality and human value Basis for objective morality and human value Reality of Reality of Consciousness Consciousness Human thought Human thought Freedom of the will Freedom of the will Human responsibility Human responsibility Provides meaning, purpose and eternal destiny Provides meaning, purpose and eternal destiny

32. Ontological Argument A completely logic argument with no reference to the external world A completely logic argument with no reference to the external world If it is possible that God exists, then God must exist. If it is possible that God exists, then God must exist. Two forms: Two forms: Anselm (1033 – 1099) Anselm (1033 – 1099) Alvin Plantinga (1932 - ) Alvin Plantinga (1932 - )

33. Anselm’s Version God is the greatest conceivable being God is the greatest conceivable being To exist is greater than to not exist. To exist is greater than to not exist. If God does not exist then it is possible to conceive a greater being If God does not exist then it is possible to conceive a greater being Therefore God exists Therefore God exists

34. Plantinga’s Version (simplified) Argument: Argument: 1. It is possible that a Maximally Great Perfect Being (MGPB) exists. 2. If it is possible that a MGPB exists then he must exist in some possible world. 3. If he exists in some possible world then he must exist in all possible worlds 4. Therefore a MGPB exists Only premise 1 is controversial Only premise 1 is controversial

35. Essence of OA One of the properties of an MGB is necessary existence One of the properties of an MGB is necessary existence If it is possible that a necessary being exists then a necessary being must exist. If it is possible that a necessary being exists then a necessary being must exist.

36. Euthyphro Dilemma Is an act right because God says it's so, or does God say it's so because it's right? Is an act right because God says it's so, or does God say it's so because it's right? False Dilemma False Dilemma God is maximally perfect God is maximally perfect Goodness is the expression of God’s character Goodness is the expression of God’s character Good and evil are not equivalent Good and evil are not equivalent Evil is essentially parasitic on the good Evil is essentially parasitic on the good The good is living functionally in God’s creation The good is living functionally in God’s creation So God knows what is good So God knows what is good

37. Problem of evil Acknowledges objective reality of good and evil and thus reinforces 2 nd premise in moral argument (objective moral values and duties exist) Acknowledges objective reality of good and evil and thus reinforces 2 nd premise in moral argument (objective moral values and duties exist)

38. David Hume’s Formulation 1. Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent. Then is he impotent. 2. Is he able, but not willing? Then is he malevolent. Then is he malevolent. 3. Is he both able and willing? Whence then is evil?” Whence then is evil?”

39. Response to Hume Neither of Hume’s 1 st 2 premises are necessarily true Neither of Hume’s 1 st 2 premises are necessarily true

40. Premise 1 Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then is he impotent. Then is he impotent. Alvin Plantinga’s free will argument Alvin Plantinga’s free will argument God is not able to do the logically impossible God is not able to do the logically impossible Human freedom may be incompatible with prevention of evil Human freedom may be incompatible with prevention of evil Would we want our children to be perfect robots? Would we want our children to be perfect robots?

41. Premise 2 Is he able, but not willing? Is he able, but not willing? Then is he malevolent Then is he malevolent God may have a purpose in allowing pain, suffering or evil God may have a purpose in allowing pain, suffering or evil Happiness drug Happiness drug

42. Christian Framework Freedom and fall Freedom and fall Most of our suffering is due to our own choices Most of our suffering is due to our own choices This life is not all there is This life is not all there is Suffering is a means of growth in maturity Suffering is a means of growth in maturity Final judgement will resolve all Final judgement will resolve all