1. Macroeconomics
Chapters

2. Domain Focus
SSEMA1 The student will illustrate the means by which economic activity is measured.

3. Domain Focus
SSEMA2 The student will explain the role and functions of the Federal Reserve System.

4. Domain Focus
SSEMA2 The student will explain the role and functions of the Federal Reserve System.

5. SSEMA1 The student will illustrate the means by which economic activity is measured.
a. Explain that overall levels of income, employment, and prices are determined by the spending and production decisions of households, businesses, government, and net exports. b. Define Gross Domestic Product (GDP), economic growth, unemployment, Consumer Price Index (CPI), inflation, stagflation, and aggregate supply and aggregate demand. c. Explain how economic growth, inflation, and unemployment are calculated. d. Identify structural, cyclical, and frictional unemployment. e. Define the stages of the business cycle, as well as recession and depression. f. Describe the difference between the national debt and government deficits.

6. Macroeconomics
Reminder- Macroeconomics= the study of the behavior and the decision making of entire economies

7. Circular Flow Model

8. Gross Domestic Product
Gross= total
Domestic= produced anywhere in the 50 states, by anyone
Product= final goods and services

9. Total amount of final goods and services produced in a country
What does GDP measure?
Total amount of final goods and
services produced in a country
in one year.
(Measure of Output)

10. Gross Domestic Product
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- the dollar value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a given year
Dollar Value- the total of the selling prices of all goods and services produced in a country in one calendar year
Final Goods and Services- products in the form sold to consumers
Intermediate goods- used in the production of final goods
Produced within a country’s borders- includes cars produced in the U.S. by a Japanese automaker

11. Are there any cool formulas you can give us relating to this interesting concept?
GDP=C+I+G+(X-M)

12. Expenditure Approach C= consumption spending I= investment spending
(think consumers)
72%
I= investment spending
(think businesses investing in themselves)
15%
G= government spending
17%
(X-M)= difference between exports and imports
-4%

13. Expenditure Approach
Expenditure Approach (output-expenditure approach)
Estimate the annual expenditures or amounts spent on four categories of final goods and services
Consumer goods and services
Durable goods- goods that last for a relatively long time (refrigerators, cars, etc.)
Nondurable goods- goods that last a short period of time (food, light bulbs, etc.)
Business Goods and services
Gov’t goods and services
Net exports or imports of goods and services
Add together the amounts spent on all four categories to arrive at the total expenditures on goods and services produced during the year

14. Expenditure Approach
GDP=C+I+G+(X-M)

15. Income Approach Income Approach
Calculates GDP by adding up all the incomes in the economy
Results from the two approaches are compared to judge accuracy

16. What is counted in GDP? FINAL goods and services
Goods/Services produced
here, even if by a foreign co.

17. What is NOT counted? Things produced outside the country.
Illegal stuff
Purely financial transactions

18. …and INTERMEDIATE GOODS

19. Limitations of GDP
GDP does not take into account certain economic activities
NonMarket Activities- goods and services that people make or do themselves
The underground economy- black market and illegal goods, legal informal transactions
Negative Externalities- unintended economic side effects
Quality of life

20. Problems associated with GDP
Slow to calculate
Does not count everything (it’s an estimate)
Inflation can distort the figure
Real vs. Nominal

21. Nominal Versus Real GDP
Nominal GDP- GDP measured in current prices
Real GDP- GDP expressed in constant, or unchanging prices

22. Real and Nominal GDP Nominal and Real GDP Year 1 Nominal GDP
Suppose an economy‘s entire output is cars and trucks.
This year the economy produces:
10 cars at $15,000 each = $150,000
+ 10 trucks at $20,000 each = $200,000
Total = $350,000
Since we have used the current year’s prices to express the current year’s output, the result is a nominal GDP of $350,000.
In the second year, the economy’s output does not increase, but the prices of the cars and trucks do:
This new GDP figure of $370,000 is misleading. GDP rises because of an increase in prices. Economists prefer to have a measure of GDP that is not affected by changes in prices. So they calculate real GDP.
10 cars at $16,000 each = $160,000
+ 10 trucks at $21,000 each = $210,000
Total = $370,000
Year 2 Nominal GDP
10 cars at $15,000 each = $150,000
+ 10 trucks at $20,000 each = $200,000
Total = $350,000
To correct for an increase in prices, economists establish a set of constant prices by choosing one year as a base year. When they calculate real GDP for other years, they use the prices
from the base year. So we calculate the real GDP for Year 2 using the prices from Year 1:
Year 3 Real GDP
Real GDP for Year 2, therefore, is $350,000

23. Economic Growth
Economic growth is measured by finding real GDP per capita (real GDP divided by the total population)
Real GDP per capita is considered the best measure of a nation’s standard of living.
The basic measure of a nation’s economic growth rate is the percentage change of real GDP over a given period of time

24. Per Capita GDP
GDP divided by a country’s population

25. Other Income and Output Measures
GDP is the primary measure of output
Gross National Product (GNP)- the annual income earned by U.S. owned firms and U.S. citizens
Depreciation (the loss of the value of capital equipment that results from normal wear and tear) is not taken into account

26. Aggregate Supply
Aggregate Supply- the total amount of goods and services in the economy available at all possible price levels
Economists add up the total supply of goods and services produced for sale in the economy (GDP)
Calculate the price level (the average of all prices in the economy)
As the prices of most goods and services change, the price level changes.
Firms respond by changing their output (real GDP)
Prices rise- production increases
Prices fall- production decreases

27. Aggregate Supply

28. Aggregate Demand
Aggregate Demand- the amount of goods and services in the economy that will be purchased at all possible price levels
Lower price levels means greater purchasing power for households; falling prices increase wealth and demand
Higher price levels causes purchasing power to decline; reduction in the quantity of goods and services demanded

29. Aggregate Demand

30. AS/AD Equilibrium
Aggregate Supply/Aggregate Demand Equilibrium= AS/AD Equilibrium
Any shift in aggregate supply or aggregate demand will have an impact on real GDP and on the price level

31. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Lesson
Factors that shift an AD Curve
Changes in
Consumer Spending
Investment Spending
Government Spending
Net Export Spending
Increases in Aggregate Demand increase real GDP and the price level
Decreases in Aggregate Demand decrease real GDP and price level

32. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Lesson
Factors that shift an AS Curve
Changes in
The prices of inputs (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship)
Productivity
Technology
Government Regulations
Increases in Aggregate Supply increase real GDP and lower the price level
Decreases in Aggregate Supply decrease real GDP and raise the price level

33. AD/AS

34. Business Cycles
Business Cycles- a period of macroeconomic expansion followed by a period of contraction
Business cycles are not minor ups and downs- they are major changes in real GDP above or below normal levels

35. Business Cycle
GDP

36. Phases of a Business Cycle
Expansion- a period of economic growth as measured by a rise in real GDP
Economic Growth- a steady, long-term increase in real GDP
Plentiful jobs, a falling unemployment rate, and business prosperity
Peak- the height of an economic expansion, when real GDP stops rising

37. Phases of a Business Cycle
3. Contraction- a period of economic decline marked by falling real GDP
Unemployment rate rises
Recession- a prolonged economic contraction- generally lasts from 6 to 18 months
Depression- a recession that is especially long and severe; high unemployment and low factory output
Stagflation- a decline in real GDP combined with a rise in the price level
4. Trough- the lowest point in an economic contraction, when real GDP stops falling

38. What affects Business Cycles?
Business cycles are affected by 4 main variables
1. Business Investment
When the economy is expanding businesses invest heavily in new plants and equipment
When firms decide they have expanded enough or demand falls they cut back on investment spending
2. Interest Rates and Credit
When interest rates are low households and firms borrow more money
When interest rates climb, investments and job growth dries up

39. What affects Business Cycles?
3. Consumer Expectations
Fears of a weakening economy can cause consumer confidence to fall- people begin saving their money; the opposite is also true
4. External Shocks
Negative External Shocks- Disruptions in the oil supply, wars that interrupt normal trade relations, droughts that severely reduce crop harvests
Positive External Shocks- discovery of a large deposit of oil or minerals, a perfect growing season

40. Business Cycle Forecasting
Leading Indicators- key economic variables that economists use to predict a new phase of a business cycle
Stock Market
Interest Rates
Manufacturers new orders of capital goods
Economic Ups and Down- key words Business Cycle

41. Business Cycles in American History
The Great Depression- the most severe economic downturn in the history of industrial capitalism
John Maynard Keynes- The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money
Economies could fall into long-lasting contractions
Government intervention might be needed to pull an economy out of a depression

42. Am I Unemployed?

43. Unemployment
1. Structural 2. Cyclical 3. Frictional

44. Types of Unemployment Frictional Unemployment
Occurs when people change jobs, get laid off from their current jobs, take some time to find the right job after they finish their schooling, or take time off from working for a variety of other reasons
Structural Unemployment
Occurs when workers' skills do not match the jobs that are available. Technological advances are one cause of structural unemployment
Seasonal Unemployment (DO NOT NEED TO KNOW for EOCT)
Occurs when industries slow or shut down for a season or make seasonal shifts in their production schedules
Cyclical Unemployment
Unemployment that rises during economic downturns and falls when the economy improves
Worksheet 13-1

45. Structural Unemployment

46. Cyclical Unemployment

47. Frictional Unemployment

48. What is “unemployed”?
People available for work who made a specific effort to find work in the past month and who during the most recent survey week, worked less than one hour for pay or profit.
Also people who worked in a family business without pay for less than 15 hours a week.

49. How is unemployment measured?
It’s an important indicator of the health of the economy.
Bureau of Labor statistics polls sample of population to determine how many are employed and unemployed.
Unemployment rate is the percentage of nation’s labor force that is unemployed.
It is only a national average – it’s doesn’t reflect regional trends.

50. Full Employment
The level of employment reached when there is no cyclical unemployment (no one out of work because of downturn in the economy – everyone who wants a job has one)
4-6% unemployment is “normal”.

51. Limitations
Figures don’t count those who have become frustrated and stopped looking for work (have to have looked for work in the past 4 weeks)
If you have a part time job you are considered employed even if you would rather have a full time job – took this one because it’s all you could find.

52. The Effects of Rising Prices
Inflation- a general increase in prices
Purchasing power- the ability to purchase goods and services, is decreased by rising prices
Price level - the relative cost of goods and services in the entire economy at a given point in time

53. Degrees of Inflation Creeping inflation Galloping inflation
Range of 1-3%
Galloping inflation
Can go as high as %
Hyperinflation
Out of control
In range of 500%
Doesn’t happen often – last stage before monetary collapse. (WW II – Hungary and Germany)

54. Causes of Inflation
The Quantity Theory- too much money in the economy leads to inflation; inflation can be tamed by increasing the money supply at the same rate that the economy is growing.
The Cost-Push Theory- inflation occurs when producers raise prices in order to meet increased costs
Leads to wage-price spiral- the process by which rising wages cause higher prices and higher prices cause higher wages

55. Causes of Inflation
The Demand-Pull Theory- inflation occurs when demand for goods and services exceeds existing supplies
Wage-price spiral – self-perpetuating spiral – higher prices force workers to ask for higher wages. Producers try to recover this by raising prices, which forces workers to ask for higher wages….

56. Effects of Inflation
Purchasing Power
The dollar will not buy the same amount of goods that it did in years past.
Interest Rates
When a bank's interest rate matches the inflation rate, savers break even. When a bank's interest rate is lower than the inflation rate, savers lose money.
Income
If wage increases match the inflation rate, a worker's real income stays the same. If income is fixed income, or income that does not increase even when prices go up, the economic effects of inflation can be harmful.

57. Price Indexes
Price Index- a measurement that shows how the average price of a standard group of goods change over time
Consumer Price Index (CPI)- a price index determined by measuring the price of a standard group of goods meant to represent the “market basket” of a typical urban consumer
Market Basket- a representative collection of goods and services
Inflation Rate- the percentage of change in price level over time

58. Calculating the CPI Price index = cost today X 100 cost in base year
Price index is current value of a “basket” of goods and service divided by cost of same basket in base year and then multiplied by 100.
Mixed basket of goods used because prices can go up or down for reasons that have nothing to do with inflation.
Having a large group of representative items helps eliminate the effect of some product’s price dropping while others tend to be on the rise.
Base year can be any year.
Price index for the base year will always be 100.
Index values over 100 indicate inflation.
Index values under 100 indicate deflation.

59. Calculating Inflation
To determine the inflation rate from one year to the next:
Take the CPI for year A and subtract the CPI for year B
Multiply by 100

60. Inflation Calculator

61. Debt v. Deficit
Demonstration Lesson- Should We Worry about the National Debt?

62. Questions for You What is the national debt?
What caused the national debt?
Where does the government get the money when it wants to spend more than it takes in?
What is a budget deficit?
What is a budget surplus?

63. Budget Deficits and the National Debt
Balanced Budget- a budget in which revenues are equal to spending
The federal budget is almost never balanced
Budget Surplus- a situation in which the government takes in more than it spends
Budget Deficit- a situation in which the government spends more than it takes in

64. The National Debt
National Debt- the total amount of money the federal government owes to bondholders
The U.S. government is viewed as stable and trustworthy and can borrow money at a low interest rate

65. The difference between DEFICITS and DEBT
Deficit- the amount of money the government borrows for one budget year
Debt- the sum of all government borrow up to that time that has not been repaid

67. b. Explain the government’s taxing and spending decisions.
SSEMA3 The student will explain how the government uses fiscal policy to promote price stability, full employment, and economic growth.
a. Define fiscal policy.
b. Explain the government’s taxing and spending decisions.

68. Fiscal Policy

69. Fiscal Policy
Actions taken by the Federal Government to influence the economy (business cycles).

70. How do they do it? Taxation (revenue) Spending (expenditures)
-transfer payments-

71. How/When/Why
If the economy needs a “boost” the Federal Government might:
_______________ taxes.
_______________ spending.

72. How/When/Why
If the economy needs to be “cooled off” the Federal Government might:
_______________ taxes.
_______________ spending.
Demo Lesson - How Can Changes in the Federal Government’s Budget Stabilize the economy?

73. Understanding Fiscal Policy
Fiscal policies are used to achieve economic growth, full employment, and price stability.
Federal Budget- a plan for the federal government’s revenues and spending for the coming year
Lists expected income
Shows how much money will be spent

74. Understanding Fiscal Policy
Fiscal Year- a twelve-month period that can begin on any date (October 1-September 30 for the Federal Government)

75. Fiscal Policy and the Economy
Expansionary Policies- fiscal policies, like higher spending and tax cuts, that encourage economic growth
Used to raise the level of output in the economy
Encourage growth
Government spending increases aggregate demand

76. Fiscal Policy and the Economy
Contractionary Policies- fiscal policies, like lower spending and higher taxes, that reduce economic growth
Used when demand exceeds supply to slow the growth of the economy (GDP)
Used to slow or prevent inflation
Leads to a decrease in aggregate demand which leads to lower prices

77. Limits of Fiscal Policy
The government cannot change spending for entitlements
Difficult to know the current state of the economy (GDP)
Even more difficult to predict future economic performance

78. Keynesian Economics
John Maynard Keynes- The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money
Comprehensive explanation of economic forces
Told economists and politicians how to get out of economic crises and how to avoid them
Focused on the economy as a whole
Productive Capacity- the maximum output that an economy can produce without big increases in inflation
Demand-Side Economics- the idea that government spending and tax cuts help an economy by raising demand

79. Keynesian Economics
Keynesian Economics- a form of demand-side economics that encourages government action to increase or decrease demand and output
Fiscal policy should be used to fight periods of recession/depression and periods of inflation
Advocated the use of expansionary and contractionary fiscal policies
Multiplier Effect- the idea that every one dollar of government spending creates more than one dollar in economic activity

80. SSEMA2 The student will explain the role and functions of the Federal Reserve System.
a. Describe the organization of the Federal Reserve System.
b. Define monetary policy.
c. Describe how the Federal Reserve uses the tools of monetary policy to promote price stability, full employment, and economic growth.

81. Federal Reserve Act of 1913 Created the Federal Reserve System
Composed of 12 independent regional banks
Could lend money to other banks in times of need

82. Structure of Federal Reserve System
Board of Governors- the seven-member board that oversees the Federal Reserve System
Appointed for staggered 14 year terms (keeps members from being pressured politically)
President picks a chair for a 4 year term from the board of governors

83. Structure of the Federal Reserve System
Federal Reserve Districts- the twelve banking districts created by the Federal Reserve Act (one Federal Reserve Bank is located in each district)
All nationally charted banks are required to join the Fed
Member banks own shares in the Fed and therefore gives the system of high degree of political independence

84. Monetary Policy

85. Monetary Policy DVD

86. Monetary Policy
The actions the Federal Reserve (Central Bank) takes to influence the level of GDP and the rate of inflation in the economy.

87. How Do They Do It? Tools of the FED Open Market Operations
Discount Rate (Fed to Banks)
Federal Funds Rate (bank to bank
Reserve Requirements
Open Market Operations Simulation

88. Tools of the Federal Reserve
Open Market Operations- the buying and selling of government securities to alter the money supply
Bond Purchases - In order to increase the money supply, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York buys government securities on the open market.
Bond Sales- When the Fed sells bonds, it takes money out of the money supply.
Discount Rate (Federal Reserve to Bank)- the interest rate that banks pay to borrow money from the Federal Reserve

89. Tools of the Federal Reserve
Federal Funds Rate (bank to bank)- the interest rate that banks pay to borrow money from each other
Reserve Requirement- the amount of money that a bank must keep on hand; set by the Federal Reserve

90. Fiscal and Monetary Policy Tools
Fiscal policy tools
Monetary policy tools
1. increasing government spending
2. cutting taxes
Expansionary tools
1. open market operations: bond purchases
2. decreasing the discount rate
3. decreasing reserve requirements
Contractionary tools
1. decreasing government spending
2. raising taxes
1. open market operations: bond sales
2. increasing the discount rate
3. increasing reserve requirements

91. How/When/Why
If the economy needs a “boost” the Federal Reserve might: _______________ bonds. _______________ interest rates. _______________ reserve requirements.

92. How/When/Why
If the economy needs to be “cooled off” the Federal Reserve might: _______________ bonds. _______________ interest rates. _______________ reserve requirements.