1. 4 th Edition Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-1 Psychology Stephen F. Davis Emporia State University Joseph J. Palladino University of Southern Indiana PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College-Omaha

2. 4 th Edition Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-2 Motivation and Emotion Chapter 6

3. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-3 What Is Motivation? Motivation refers to physiological or psychological factors that account for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior. The aspects of motivation are –(a) a motivational state that prompted the behavior, –(b) the goal toward which the behavior is directed, and –(c) reasons for variability in the intensity of the behavior.

4. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-4 Theories of Motivation Biological theories of motivation focus on the importance of biological processes in determining motivated behavior. Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli.

5. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-5 Theories of Motivation Instincts are unlearned, species-specific behaviors that are more complex than reflexes and triggered by environmental events called releasing stimuli.

6. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-6 Theories of Motivation Internal motivational states or drives are created by physiological needs, such as the need for food. Drives produce motivated behavior. Because drives are aversive, the goal of motivated behavior is drive reduction.

7. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-7 Theories of Motivation Because drives are aversive, the goal of motivated behavior is drive reduction.

8. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-8 Theories of Motivation Unlike drive-reduction theories, optimum- level theories propose that there is a level of arousal at which organisms function best. To reach this level, the organism may seek added stimulation or arousal.

9. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-9 Theories of Motivation Cognitive theories of motivation focus on the active processing of information. Cognitive-consistency theories stress the need to achieve a psychological state in which one's thoughts are consistent.

10. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-10 Theories of Motivation Cognitive dissonance occurs when incompatible thought creates an aversive state that the organism is motivated to reduce. Incentive theories of motivation stress the goals toward which the organism is pulled.

11. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-11 Theories of Motivation According to Maslow's theory, motivational needs are arranged hierarchically from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

12. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-12 Theories of Motivation The existence of multiple motives often results in conflicts. The most common conflicts are; –approach-approach, –avoidance-avoidance, –approach-avoidance, –and multiple approach-avoidance.

13. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-13 Specific Motives One factor in hunger regulation is blood sugar (glucose) levels. Low blood sugar levels signal hunger and high blood sugar levels signal that the organism is full. In addition, levels of fat are also used by the body in regulating hunger.

14. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-14 Specific Motives Obesity is associated with several physical illnesses. Factors such as gender and poverty play a role in the prevalence of obesity among certain groups in the population.

15. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-15 Specific Motives The body mass index (BMI), a single number derived from a person's height and weight is a better predictor of disease risk than insurance company tables of desirable weights.

16. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-16 Specific Motives Genetic factors play a key role in determining a person's weight. The resting metabolic rate is the rate at which a person burns calories to keep the body functioning.

17. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-17 Specific Motives The body defends a set-point weight, making it difficult, though not impossible, to lose weight.

18. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-18 Specific Motives A person with anorexia nervosa will lose a significant amount of weight. A person with bulimia nervosa will engage in a gorging-purging cycle, which involves taking in large amounts of food and then vomiting.

19. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-19 Specific Motives Although sex is classified as a biological motive, it is different from other biological motives in important ways. Sexual orientation is a person's tendency to be sexually attracted to one sex or the other or both.

20. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-20 Specific Motives Sexual behavior is influenced by external factors, brain mechanisms, and hormones. Pheromones are chemicals that elicit a response in members of the same species.

21. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-21 Specific Motives The display of sexual behavior in lower organisms is closely tied to hormone levels in the blood. Human sexual behavior results from a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and psychological factors.

22. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-22 Specific Motives Masters and Johnson outlined the stages of sexual arousal: excitement plateau, orgasm, and resolution. They also pioneered the development of techniques to treat sexual dysfunctions.

23. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-23 Specific Motives Achievement consists of behaviors that manipulate the environment, rules for those behaviors, and standards for judging performance. The need to achieve can be measured by responses to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

24. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-24 The What and The Why of Emotion Emotion is the awareness of a feeling elicited in response to an environmental stimulus, accompanied by physiological changes overt behaviors such as facial expressions.

25. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-25 The What and The Why of Emotion Darwin proposed that emotions may be innate behaviors, passed on genetically, that help organisms adapt to their environments.

26. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-26 The What and The Why of Emotion The commonsense view of emotions states the sequence of events in emotional responding as: –emotional stimulus –emotion –physiological changes.

27. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-27 The What and The Why of Emotion The James-Lange theory states that physiological changes precede and actually create emotions. The sequence of events in emotional responding is: –emotional stimulus –physiological changes –emotion.

28. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-28 The What and The Why of Emotion The Cannon-Bard theory stresses the role of the thalamus in simultaneously relaying emotional input to the cortex and sympathetic nervous system.

29. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-29 The Physiological Components There are some physiological differences among the emotions such as increased heart rate in anger.

30. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-30 The Physiological Components Blushing is elicited by a number of circumstances that usually involve concern about how others evaluate the person.

31. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-31 The Physiological Components Alexithymia is a marked inability to experience and express emotions.

32. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-32 The Physiological Components The opponent-process theory states that an initial emotional reaction is followed by the opposite reaction in an attempt to produce homeostasis. With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.

33. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-33 The Physiological Components With repeated experiences, the initial reaction gradually diminishes while the second reaction gains strength.

34. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-34 The Physiological Components The polygraph records physiological measurements thought to indicate deception. Physiological changes can, however, result from anxiety, anger, or fear.

35. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-35 The Physiological Components Failure to recognize possible causes of arousal can incorrectly identify people as being deceptive (false positives).

36. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-36 The Expressive Components There is strong evidence for universal recognition of at least six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

37. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-37 The Expressive Components Robert Plutchik has offered a model of how emotions can be combined to yield blends that differ in intensity.

38. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-38 The Expressive Components The facial feedback hypothesis contends that feedback from facial muscles affects our experience of emotion.

39. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-39 The Expressive Components Display rules are culturally specific prescriptions that tell us which emotions to display, to whom, and when. Such rules account for some cross-cultural differences in the expression of emotion.

40. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-40 The Expressive Components A real smile of enjoyment, the Duchenne smile, involves activation of muscles that are not activated during faked smiles.

41. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-41 The Expressive Components Nonverbal communication involves communication through body language, movements, and gestures.

42. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-42 The Expressive Components There are four major categories of body language: emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors. The meaning of certain gestures varies with the culture.

43. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-43 The Expressive Components Paralanguage involves communication through tone of voice, rate of speech, pauses, sighs, and loudness.

44. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-44 The Expressive Components Compared with men, women report more emotional experiences and greater comfort with emotions. One possible explanation is that women's roles and occupations tend to require greater sensitivity to the emotional expressions in others.

45. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-45 The Cognitive Components Languages and cultures differ in the number of words that describe categories of emotion. Some words refer to emotions that are not described in all cultures or languages.

46. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-46 The Cognitive Components Schachter and Singer proposed a theory that described emotion as beginning with undifferentiated arousal. The specific emotion label we use to describe the arousal depends on our interpretation of the context.

47. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-47 The Cognitive Components Appraisal theories of emotion propose that how we make judgments about events leads to emotional reactions. Cultural values can influence people's emotions.

48. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-48 The Cognitive Components A key cognitive ability is evaluating one's behavior in relation to internal or external standards. This ability is the basis of the self- conscious emotions such as shame, guilt, and pride.

49. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall6-49 The Cognitive Components The concept of emotional intelligence includes such abilities as motivating oneself, persisting in the face of frustrations, and being aware of the emotions one is experiencing.