1. Chap. 8 Ecosystem Development
鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
2008年2月至6月

2. Ecosystem development
Strategy of ecosystem development
Concept of the climax
Evolution of the biosphere
Microevolution compared with Macroevolution, artificial selection, and genetic engineering
Relevance of ecosystem development to human ecology
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3. 1 Strategy of Ecosystem Development
Ecological succession (演替、演遞、消長)
Autogenic succession
Allogenic succession
Pioneer stage
Sere, seral stages, developmental stages
Climax
Primary succession, secondary succession
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Table 8-1
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Fig Photographs of (A) a young old-field community located in Union County, Indiana
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Fig (B) a sugar maple tree. The maple tree is in a mature beech-maple climax forest.
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Fig Ecosystem development models.
(A) Systems (cybernetic) model
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Fig Ecosystem development models.
(B) Energy flow model
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Fig Ecosystem development models.
(C) Production/Respiration (P/R) maintenance model
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Fig Comparison of the energetics of ecosystem development in (A) forests.
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Fig Comparison of the energetics of ecosystem development in (B) microcosms.
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13. Allogenic compared with autogenic influences
Gap phase succession, replacement and succession in a gap in a forest caused by a disturbance such as wind or disease.
Cyclic succession, succession caused by periodic, rhythmic disturbances in which the sequence of seral stages is repeated.
Perturbation dependent, is used to designate ecosystems that are especially adapted to recurrent disturbances by virtue of a makeup of quick recovery processes and species.
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Allogenic succession
Cultural eutrophication
Lakes can and do progress to a more oligotrophic condition when nutrient input from the watershed slows or ceases.
An example is the recovery of Lake Washington (Fig. 8-4)
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Fig wave-generated succession in a balsam fir forest.
The trees reach their maximum height and density in the thin soils, they become vulnerable to strong winds that uproot and kill old trees, thereby starting a secondary succession
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Nutrient cycling
output / input ( O / I )
cycling index ( CI ) = ratio of recycled input to output
stored (S)
BG = bare ground
ES = early stages
MS = middle stages
SS = steady state
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Fig Hypothetical trends in output/input (O/I) ratio, cycling index (CI), and storage/ output (S/O) ratios of nutrients during succession.
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19. Replacement of species
A more or less continuous replacement of species over time is characteristic of most successional seres.
An example of secondary succession is illustrated in Figure 8-7, which shows the sequence of plant communities and bird populations that develop on abandoned upland agricultural fields o the Piedmont of southeastern US.
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Fig General pattern of ecological succession on abandoned farmland in the southeastern US.
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Fig The Oregon Trail near Scottsbluff, Nebraska, where a trace etched by the wheels of wagons that carried settlers during the westward migration between Missouri and Oregon is still evident.
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Abandoned wagon roads
Successive seral stages
An annual weed stage (2-5years)
A short-lived grass stage (5-10years)
An early perennial grass stage (10-20years)
A climax grass stage (reached in 20-40years)
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Fig Fish abundance in a mainstream reservoir on the upper Missouri River from the second to the fifteenth year after completion of a dam in Lake Francis Case, South Dakota.
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Fig Succession in a hay-infusion (乾草泡浸) culture, with dominance by successive species. This is an example of heterotrophic succession.
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Fig Dominance-diversity curves of old fields at five different ages of abandonment in southern Illinois.
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Historical review
ecosystem development resulted from
Modification of the physical environment by the community acting as a whole
The interaction of competition and coexistence between component populations.
Three theories
Facilitation model
Inhibition model
Tolerance model
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Historical review
self-organization theory
monoclimax concept (Clements, 1916)
The contrary concept– that ecological succession does not have an organizational strategy but results from the interactions of individuals and species as they struggle to occupy space.
Foresters find that forest succession is directional and predictable.
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28. Self-organization, synergetic, and ascendancy(優勢)
Synergetics
Ascendancy, for the tendency for self-organizing, dissipative system to develop complexity of biomass and network flows over time, as is seen in the process of ecological succession.
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2 Concept of the Climax
P=R, climax community
Monoclimax vs. polyclimax
Climax
regional (climatic) climax
local (edaphic) climax
disclimax (disturbance climax) = anthropogenic subclimax
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Fig Climatic and edaphic climaxes in southern Ontario, Canada (A) Distribution of climax communities depending on local contusions.
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Fig climax communities
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Fig Climatic and edaphic climaxes in southern Ontario, Canada (C) Theoretical development of edaphic climaxed at extremes of moisture to ward a climatic climax at the intermediate moisture conditions.
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Fig Edaphic climaxes on the West coast of northern California.
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35. 3 Evolution of the Biosphere
population evolution (genes and species)
coevolution
group or community selection
continental drift (plate tectonics)
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Fig The evolution of the biosphere and its effect on the atmosphere.
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Fig Earth’s biogeological clock.
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4 Microevolution Compared with Macroevolution, Artificial Selection, and Genetic Engineering
Evolution
Selection pressure
Recurrent mutations
Genetic drift
Speciation
Allopatric speciation
Sympatric speciation
evolution
Microevolution
gradual process
Macroevolution
rapid changes
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Fig Character displacement.
Darwin’s finches.
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40. 天擇的範例：peppered moths 鄭先祐 生態主張者 Ayo工作室
Ref: Wells, J. (1999) Second thoughts about peppered moths. The Scientist 13:13.

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Artificial selection
artificial selection
domestication
harvest ratio
genetic engineering
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42. Ecology of Transgenic Crops
鄭先祐
生態主張者：Ayo工作室

43. 5 Relevance of Ecosystem Development to Human Ecology
Pulse stability
Restoration ecology
Network complexity theory
compartment models for land use
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Fig Compartment models for landscape-use planning (A) Partitioned according to ecosystem theory.
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Fig Compartment models for landscape-use planning (B) As viewed by architects and landscape designers.
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Fig Model illustrating the parasitic nature of urban industrial technoecosystems and the need to link natural life-support ecosystems with these technoecosystems.
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問題與討論
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chap. 8 ecosystem development