1. familia Caesaris Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/women

2. Review: slave and freed hierarchy Review: slave and freed hierarchy freed – full citizen status (formally manumitted) freed – full citizen status (formally manumitted) Latini Iuniani – Iunian Latins (informally manumitted Latini Iuniani – Iunian Latins (informally manumitted dediticii - could never become Roman citizens dediticii - could never become Roman citizens

3. Social Hierarchy among slaves Different status groups among slaves Different status groups among slaves Slaves with free masters Slaves with free masters Slave vicarii – with slave masters Slave vicarii – with slave masters Legal and social status of master Legal and social status of master Imperial slaves to penal slaves in mines Imperial slaves to penal slaves in mines

4. Familia Caesaris Most important group of slaves and ex- slaves in early Empire Most important group of slaves and ex- slaves in early Empire Long period of time - Augustus – early 3 rd century (epigraphic evidence ceases) Long period of time - Augustus – early 3 rd century (epigraphic evidence ceases) Each emperor inherited ownership of slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves of predecessor Each emperor inherited ownership of slaves and patronal rights over ex-slaves of predecessor

5. Our sources Well evidenced by inscriptions Well evidenced by inscriptions some careers of freedmen can be traced over several reigns following that of manumitting emperor some careers of freedmen can be traced over several reigns following that of manumitting emperor Longest career we have evidence of: the father of Claudius Etruscus, from reign of Tiberius to Domitian Longest career we have evidence of: the father of Claudius Etruscus, from reign of Tiberius to Domitian

6. A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was freed by Gaius and held a procuratorial post under Claudius and Nero A certain C. Iulius Aug. L. Samius was freed by Gaius and held a procuratorial post under Claudius and Nero

7. The evidence - nomenclature Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify Imperial slaves and freed easy to identify Ordinary slaves had one single name Ordinary slaves had one single name Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Imperial slaves added their status to their slave name: Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) Caes(aris) ser(vus) or Aug(usti) vern(a) or Aug(usti) or Caes(aris) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus) i.e. Onesimus Caes(aris) ser(vus)

8. Imperial freedmen Received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen Received tria nomina of a Roman citizen: praenomen, nomen (gentilicum), cognomen Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Then added status: Aug(usti) lib(ertus) or Aug(usti) l(ibertus). Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus Example: Ti. Claudius Aug. l. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus T. Flavius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus M. Ulpius Aug. lib. Onesimus Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD Imperials freedmen/women very proud of status and continued to display it even after most private freed and citizens gave up to display status on funerary inscriptions – end of first century AD

9. Hierarchy within familia Caesaris Not a homogeneous group Not a homogeneous group Spread throughout the Empire Spread throughout the Empire Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Great variety of opportunities for professional and social advancement Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Vast status differences depending on branch of imperial service, professional grade, rate of advancement achieved in service Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris Division into familia urbana and familia rustica does not apply to familia Caesaris

10. Divisions of Familia Caesaris A) slaves and freed working in daily maintenance, provisioning, supervision of residence and properties for emperor’s personal upkeep A) slaves and freed working in daily maintenance, provisioning, supervision of residence and properties for emperor’s personal upkeep B) slaves and freed working in supervising the revenue-producing imperial properties or in financial administrative functions of civil service B) slaves and freed working in supervising the revenue-producing imperial properties or in financial administrative functions of civil service

11. A – domestic group Included staff of Imperial Palace in Rome, palace of the Augusta, other villas in Rome and other Italian towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and elsewhere Included staff of Imperial Palace in Rome, palace of the Augusta, other villas in Rome and other Italian towns, Imperial gardens in Rome and elsewhere

12. Range of duties Custos – guard, aedituus – keeper, Custos – guard, aedituus – keeper, Lectiarius – litter-bearer, Lectiarius – litter-bearer, With more responsibilities or skill: topiarius – ornamental gardener With more responsibilities or skill: topiarius – ornamental gardener Tricliniarchus - in charge of dining room Tricliniarchus - in charge of dining room Praegustato Imperial taster Praegustato Imperial taster Archimagiur - head chef Archimagiur - head chef and countless more … and countless more …

13. Influential posts: Cubicularius - in charge of bedroom Cubicularius - in charge of bedroom Ad admissione - both positions controlled access to emperor - had close contact with emperor Ad admissione - both positions controlled access to emperor - had close contact with emperor Unofficial and thus uncontrolled influence outside their domestic sphere Unofficial and thus uncontrolled influence outside their domestic sphere

14. Late empire Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist regime Ex-slave eunuchs – under absolutist regime Highest positions in palace service - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - were very powerful Highest positions in palace service - in charge of Imperial bedchamber - were very powerful The two chief posts: praepositus sacri cubiculi The two chief posts: praepositus sacri cubiculi Primicerius sacri cubiculi Primicerius sacri cubiculi

15. B Slaves and ex-slaves in Imperial Administration Wide range of departments – all aspects of receipts and payments of funds under emperor’s control Wide range of departments – all aspects of receipts and payments of funds under emperor’s control Public services: aqueducts, libraries, post, roads, public works and buildings, Public services: aqueducts, libraries, post, roads, public works and buildings, Imperial mines and quarries, the mint Imperial mines and quarries, the mint

16. Range of positions Wide range Wide range Sub-clerical: pedisequi (foot attendant), costodius (guard), nomenclator, tabellarii, Sub-clerical: pedisequi (foot attendant), costodius (guard), nomenclator, tabellarii, Intermediate clerical grades: adiutor, vicarius, dispensator, a commentarius, tabularius Intermediate clerical grades: adiutor, vicarius, dispensator, a commentarius, tabularius Senior clerical ranks: tabularii a rationibus, proximi Senior clerical ranks: tabularii a rationibus, proximi Senior administrative positions: procurator, a rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellis Senior administrative positions: procurator, a rationibus, ab epitulis, a libellis

17. Wide range of status Variation in same rank in different departments: example: central finance bureaux of a rationibus to department responsible for minor tax Variation in same rank in different departments: example: central finance bureaux of a rationibus to department responsible for minor tax Other factors, location: head office in Rome had higher rank attached than branch office in province Other factors, location: head office in Rome had higher rank attached than branch office in province

18. Other Imperial Slaves Working in private commercial and industrial enterprises either on own account: vestifex or vestifica (tailor, dressmaker) Working in private commercial and industrial enterprises either on own account: vestifex or vestifica (tailor, dressmaker) Caelator (engraver), argentarius (silver-smith) Caelator (engraver), argentarius (silver-smith) Working in emperor’s building projects including supplies of building materials Working in emperor’s building projects including supplies of building materials Lapidarii (stonemasons) marmorarii (marble cutters) structures (carpenters) architecti ( master-builders) - Lapidarii (stonemasons) marmorarii (marble cutters) structures (carpenters) architecti ( master-builders) -

19. Recruitment into service Predominantly from within the familia: children of Imperial slaves and freedmen (verna – houseborn slave Predominantly from within the familia: children of Imperial slaves and freedmen (verna – houseborn slave First century AD many also from outside the familia First century AD many also from outside the familia

20. Marriage and Status High proportion of ‘marriage’ between Imperial slaves and freeborn women High proportion of ‘marriage’ between Imperial slaves and freeborn women S.C. Claudianum 52 AD (framed by Claudius’ freedman Pallas) S.C. Claudianum 52 AD (framed by Claudius’ freedman Pallas) Exception to rule regarding children born outside legal marriage: children of free women and imperial slaves took status of father - thus would be imperial slaves. Exception to rule regarding children born outside legal marriage: children of free women and imperial slaves took status of father - thus would be imperial slaves.

21. Manumission of Imperial Slaves Relatively high chance of manumission for slaves in upper grades of Imperial service Relatively high chance of manumission for slaves in upper grades of Imperial service No informal manumission for Imperial slaves No informal manumission for Imperial slaves Emperor’s interest to get best work out of slave and then have manumission purchased by slave from peculium Emperor’s interest to get best work out of slave and then have manumission purchased by slave from peculium Special department - Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum Special department - Fiscus libertatis et peculiorum

22. Manumission of Imperial Slaves Higher chance of manumission, but less chance before age 30 Higher chance of manumission, but less chance before age 30 Average age of manumission between 30 – 40 Average age of manumission between 30 – 40 Slaves seemed to have tried to be manumitted as soon as possible Slaves seemed to have tried to be manumitted as soon as possible Unskilled later 20% over 40, 15% over 50 Unskilled later 20% over 40, 15% over 50 In contrast – large proportion of female slaves owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted before 30 (for marriage purpose) In contrast – large proportion of female slaves owned by Imperial freedmen manumitted before 30 (for marriage purpose)

23. General manumission reviewed: Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements – 30 for slave, 20 for owner Lex Aelia Sentia AD 4: age requirements – 30 for slave, 20 for owner Slaves manumitted under 30 became Iunian Latins Slaves manumitted under 30 became Iunian Latins Significant number of exceptions (iusta causa – just cause): blood relationship ) sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster relations, paedagogus ; future services (if slave was over 18); intended marriage Significant number of exceptions (iusta causa – just cause): blood relationship ) sons, daughters, brothers, sisters, foster relations, paedagogus ; future services (if slave was over 18); intended marriage

24. Ways for Latins to get full citizenship Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on first birthday of first child for themselves and child: anniculi probation Augustus: Latins could receive full citizenship on first birthday of first child for themselves and child: anniculi probation Subsequent emperors added more options: (Ulpian iii) services to state in emergencies: military service (rare), providing shipping for transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of buildings (i.e. after great fire) Subsequent emperors added more options: (Ulpian iii) services to state in emergencies: military service (rare), providing shipping for transport of corn, supply of bread, construction of buildings (i.e. after great fire) Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to lex Aelia Sentia Vespasian in AD 75 and Hadrian made changes to lex Aelia Sentia Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, and no age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust vii.15.2) Justinian abolished class of Latins and dediticii, and no age limit for manumission (Cod. Iust vii.15.2)

25. Imperial Civil Service Majority of positions filled by imperial freedmen and slaves Majority of positions filled by imperial freedmen and slaves Upper-level posts used to be filled by senators and equestrians in Republican period Upper-level posts used to be filled by senators and equestrians in Republican period

26. Conclusions – Imperial Slaves and Freedmen/women Very privileged group among slaves Very privileged group among slaves Often imperial slaves and freed had higher social and economic status than humble free-born Roman citizens Often imperial slaves and freed had higher social and economic status than humble free-born Roman citizens Exceptional status can be seen in practice of marriage between Imperial slaves and free-born women Exceptional status can be seen in practice of marriage between Imperial slaves and free-born women Law responded to this practice by changing natural law of slavery (slave-children as taking status of mother) to children of such union to take slave status of father. Law responded to this practice by changing natural law of slavery (slave-children as taking status of mother) to children of such union to take slave status of father.