1. I. Depression

2.  Prevalence.  20% - 26% of women compared to 8% - 12 % of men.

3.  Women just more willing to report.  Women have less income.  Depression takes the form of alcoholism in men.

4.  Biological explanations.  Hormones. Mechanism of action. Estrogen and progesterone may act as serotonin reuptake inhibiters. Daily diary studies. In a study by Golub, women scored higher on a depression measure when premenstrual (mean = 9.30) than mid-cycle (6.84). The average score for a psychiatric population was 16.03.

5. Problems with the PMS concept. The role of expectancies. A study by Ruble experimentally manipulating expectations.  Genetics. It is speculated that depression might reflect mutations on the X chromosome. Support for this hypothesis through twin studies and looking at patterns of mother-child versus father-child pairings of depression is mixed.

6.  Environmental explanations.  Learned helplessness. Chronic exposure to uncontrollable negative events leads to feelings of helplessness, and ultimately, depression. This model assumes that women are more likely to be exposed to these types of events in comparison to men.

7.  Gender differences in coping styles (Hilt & Nolen- Hoeksema, 2009). Asserted that women are more likely to have a ruminative coping style and men are more likely to have a distractive style. Rumination is thought to strengthen feelings of depression, possibly by repeatedly “rehearsing” negative cognitions.

8. II. Eating disorders

9.  Prevalence.  90-95% of anorexic are females.  1 out of every 250 adolescence.  DSM-V Criteria  Maintaining a weight that is significantly lower than what is minimally expected.  Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat even though underweight.  Disturbance in the way in which body weight or shape is experienced.  http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/most-models- meet-criteria-for-anorexia-size-6-is-plus-size-magazine / http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/01/most-models- meet-criteria-for-anorexia-size-6-is-plus-size-magazine

10.  Other Symptoms / Characteristics  Amenorrhea.  Thinning hair.  Dry, flaking skin.  Constipation.  Lanugo.  Lowered body temperature--often 95-97 F.  Obsessive and ritualistic about food.  Perfectionistic overachievers.  Highly resistant to therapy.  Differences between Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

11.  Biological  Are many biological changes that may represent effects rather than causes.  Twin studies suggest a heritability index of 50%.  Behavioral  Purging behavior is reinforced by anxiety reduction.  Treatment is exposure w/ response prevention.  Cognitive-behavioral  Assumes that cognitive distortions are a risk factor for eating disorders. http://www.upworthy.com/2-people-described-the-same-person-to-a-forensic-artist-and- this-is-what-happene?c=ufb2

12.  Family and Systems.  Rigid & Enmeshed boundaries.  An over-emphasis on achievement and weight as a sign of achievement.  Feminist.  The thin ideal A study of the Fuiji Islands (Becker, 2004). A review of the experimental research. Moderators. Family factors. Internalization of the thin ideal. Race and internalization of the thin ideal.  Opression and the thin ideal http://www.returnofkings.com/21313/5-reasons-to-date-a-girl-with-an-eating-disorder