1. Second Exam: Thursday 2 April 2015 Covers Chapters 5, 8, 9, and 10
Lectures 10 to 19 plus
Agriculture
Global Warming
The Vanishing Book of Life on Earth
Plastics
Intelligent Design?
The Weakest Link
Technology
Economics

2. Social Behavior Hermits must have lower fitness than social individuals Clumped, random, or dispersed (variance/mean ratio) mobility = motility = vagility (sedentary sessile organisms) Fluid versus Viscous Populations Use of Space, Philopatry Individual Distance, Daily Movements Home Range Territoriality (economic defendability) Resource in short supply Feeding Territories Nesting Territories Mating Territories

3. Sexual Reproduction. Monoecious (Hermaphrodites) versus Diecious
Sexual Reproduction Monoecious (Hermaphrodites) versus Diecious Evolution of Sex —> Anisogamy Diploidy as a “fail-safe” mechanism Costs of Sexual Reproduction (halves heritability!) Facultative Sexuality (Cladocera, Daphnia) Protandry <—> Protogyny (Social control) Parthenogenesis (unisexual species) Possible advantages of sexual reproduction include: two parents can raise twice as many progeny mix genes with desirable genes (enhances fitness) reduced sibling competition heterozygosity biparental origin of many unisexual species

4. Four Possible Situations Involving an Individual’s
Behavior and Its Influence on a Neighbor
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Neighbor(s) Gain Neighbor(s) Lose
Individual Gains Pseudo-altruistic behavior Selfish behavior
(kin selection) (selected for)
Individual Loses True altruistic behavior Mutually disadvanta-
(counterselected) geous behavior
(counterselected)
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5. W. D. Hamilton (1964). Kin Selection. Inclusive Fitness
W. D. Hamilton (1964) Kin Selection Inclusive Fitness Hamilton’s rule: r n b – c > r = coefficient of relatedness n = number of relatives that benefit b = benefit received by each recipient c = cost suffered by donor r n b > c “Adaptive Geometry of a Selfish Herd”

6. “Adaptive Geometry of a Selfish Herd”

7. Eusocial Insects. Hymenoptera (“thin wings”)
Eusocial Insects Hymenoptera (“thin wings”) Ants, bees, wasps, hornets Workers are all females Haplodiploidly Isoptera (“same wings”) Termites (castes consist of both sexes) Endosymbionts Parental manipulation Cyclic inbreeding

8. White-Fronted Bee Eaters, Kenya

11. Helpers at the Nest in White-Fronted Bee Eaters in Kenya
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Breeders r* Number of Cases % Cases
Father x Mother
Father x Stepmother
Mother x Stepfather
Son x Nonrelative
Brother x Nonrelative
Grandfather x Grandmother
Half brother x Nonrelative
Uncle x Nonrelative
Grandmother x Nonrelative
Grandson x Nonrelative
Great grandfather x Nonrelative
Nonrelative x Nonrelative
Total
* r = coefficient of relatedness.

12. Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers 1971)
Donor Recipient Small costs, large gains, reciprocated Sentinels Robert Trivers Biological basis for our sense of justice? Friendship, gratitude, sympathy, loyalty, betrayal, guilt, dislike, revenge, trust, suspicion, dishonesty, hypocrisy
Reciprocal Altruism (Trivers 1971)
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13. Selfish caller Hypotheses. 1. Full up “I see you”. 2. Mass pandemonium
Selfish caller Hypotheses 1. Full up “I see you” 2. Mass pandemonium 3. Keep on moving 4. Mixed species flocks, fake alarm calls

14. Game Theoretic Approaches. Costs versus benefits of behaviors
Game Theoretic Approaches Costs versus benefits of behaviors “tit for tat” strategy can lead to cooperation (“the future casts a long shadow back on the present” -- Axelrod) Evolutionarily stable strategies = ESS (a tactic that when present in a population, cannot be beaten)
John Maynard Smith

15. Game Theoretic Approaches Prisoner's dilemma: Two suspects, A and B, are arrested by the police. The police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, each of them is offered the same deal: if one testifies for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent, the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full 10-year sentence. If both stay silent, the police can sentence both prisoners to only six months in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each will receive a two-year sentence. Each prisoner must make the choice of whether to betray the other or to remain silent. But neither prisoner knows for sure what choice the other prisoner will make. So the question this dilemma poses is: What will happen? How will the prisoners act?

16. Prisoner's Dilemma http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prisoner-dilemma/
Prisoner B Stays Silent Prisoner B Betrays
Prisoner A
Stays Silent Both serve 6 months Prisoner A serves 10 years
Prisoner B goes free
Prisoner A Prisoner A goes free
Betrays Prisoner B serves 10 years Both serve two years

17. Evolution of Self Deceit. Subconscious mind
Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Fool Yourself The Better to Fool Others

18. Evolution of Self Deceit. Subconscious mind
Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Fool Yourself The Better to Fool Others

19. Evolution of Self Deceit. Subconscious mind
Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Fool Yourself The Better to Fool Others

20. Summary of Direct Pairwise Interactions Between Two Populations
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Species
Type of Interaction A B Nature of Interaction
Competition – – Each population inhibits the other
Predation, parasitism, + – Population A, the predator, parasite,
and Batesian mimicry or mimic, kills or exploits members
of population B, the prey, host, or model
Mutualism, Interaction is favorable to both (can
Müllerian mimicry be obligatory or facultative)
Commensalism Population A, the commensal, benefits
whereas B, the host, is not affected
Amensalism – Population A is inhibited, but B is
unaffected
Neutralism Neither party affects the other
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21. Indirect Interactions
Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages

22. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
bees —> clover

23. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
bees ——> clover

24. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
mice ——o bees ——> clover

25. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
cats —o mice ——o bees ——> clover

26. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover

27. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef

28. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors

29. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval
prowess

30. Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages
spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess
Path length of seven! Longer paths take longer (delay)
Longer paths are also weaker, but there are more of them
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31. Indirect Interactions
Trophic “Cascades”
Top-down,
Bottom-up

32. Competitive Mutualism

33. Complex Population Interactions
Rob Colwell

34. Mutualistic Interactions and Symbiotic Relationships
Mutualistic Interactions and Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism (obligate and facultative) Termite endosymbionts Commensalisms (Cattle Egrets) Examples: Bullhorn Acacia ant colonies (Beltian bodies) Caterpillars “sing” to ants (protection) Ants tend aphids for their honeydew, termites cultivate fungi Bacteria and fungi in roots provide nutrients (carbon reward) Bioluminescence (bacteria) Endozoic algae (Hydra), “kidnapped” chloroplasts Endosymbiosis (Margulis) mitochondria & chloroplasts Birds on water buffalo backs, picking crocodile teeth Figs and fig wasps (pollinate, lay eggs, larvae develop)

35. Nudibranchs
Green sea slug
Hydra