1. Packet Transmission (Part III) Local Area Networks (LANs)

2. Identifying A Destination All stations on shared-media LAN receive all transmissions To allow sender to specify destination –Each station assigned unique number –Known as station’s address –Each frame contains address of identical recipient

3. Ethernet Addressing Standardized by IEEE Each station assigned unique 48-bit address Address assigned when network interface card (NIC) manufactured

4. NIC Cards Internal NIC

5. Ethernet Addressing Ethernet addresses are MAC addresses They are station (NIC) address at the MAC layer Usually expressed for humans in hexadecimal –Base 16: Each Symbol Represents 4 bits (for example, 0101=5 hex) –Convert each four bits to a hex symbol between 0 and F –Put dashes between each pair –Example: A1-34-CD-7B-DF-89

6. Ethernet Address Recognition Each frame contains destination address All stations receive a transmission Station discards any frame addressed to another station Important: interface hardware, not software, checks address

7. Possible Destinations Packet can be sent to: –Single destination (unicast) –All stations on network (broadcast) –Subset of stations (multicast) Address used to distinguish

8. Advantages Of Address Alternatives Unicast –Efficient for interaction between two computers Broadcast –Efficient for transmitting to all computers Multicast –Efficient for transmitting to a subnet of computers

9. Broadcast On Ethernet All 1s address specifies broadcast Sender –Places broadcast address in frame –Transmits one copy on shared network –All stations receive copy Receiver –Station’s unicast address –The broadcast address

10. Multicast On Ethernet Half of address reserved for multicast Network interface card –Always accepts unicast and broadcast –Can accept zero or more multicast address Software –Determine multicast address to accept –Informs network interface card

11. Identifying Frame Contents Integer type field tells recipient the type of data being carried Two possibilities –Self-identifying or explicit type (hardware records type) –Implicit type (application sending data must handle type).

12. Conceptual Frame Format Header –Contains address and type information –layout fixed Payload –Contains data being sent

13. Illustration Of Ethernet Frame Sender places –Sender’s address in source –Recipient’s address in destination –Type of data in frame type –Cyclic redundancy check in CRC

14. Octet A collection of 8 bits Called a byte in computer science The term “Octet” is widely used in networking Octet = group of 8 bits

15. Ethernet Frame Preamble (7 Octets) 10101010 … Begins synchronization Start of Frame Delimiter (1 Octet) 10101011 Ends synchronization Signals start of content of frame FieldDescription 1010101010101010101010101010101010… Synchronizes the receiver’s clock with the sender’s clock

16. Ethernet Frame Destination Address (6 Octets) 48 Bits Expressed for humans in Hexadecimal Example: A1-34-CD-7B-DF-34 Unique value set at factory FieldDescription Source Address (6 Octets) 48 Bits Expressed for humans in Hexadecimal Example: C7-66-3B-AC-89-00 Unique value set at factory

17. Ethernet Frame FieldDescription Length (2 Octets) Length of Data Field in octets 1,500 (decimal) maximum Data (variable)LLC Frame PAD (Needed if Data Field is less than 46 octet minimum; Data Field plus Pad will be 46 Octets)

18. Ethernet Frame FieldDescription CRC (4 Octets) Error detection field; If error is detected, frame is discarded The CRC field is for error checking Both sender and receiver compute it from the other bits in the frame. If the two computed values are different, there has been an error. In case of error, the receiver discards the frame; there is no request for retransmission.

19. Example Ethernet Types

20. When Network Hardware Does Not Include Types Sending and receiving computers must agree –To only send one type of data –To put type information in first few octets of payload Most system need type information

21. Illustration Of Type Information Added to Data In practice –Type information small compared to data carried –Format of type information standardized

22. A Standard For Type Information Defined by IEEE Used when hardware does not include type field Called LLC/SNAP header

23. Demultiplexing On Type Network interface hardware –Received copy of each transmitted frame –Examines address and either discards or accepts –Passes accepted frames to system software Network device software –Examines frame type –Passes frames to correct software module

24. Ring Topology Second most popular LAN topology Bits flow in single direction Several technologies exist

25. Used with ring topology Guarantees fair access: IEEE 802.5 standards Token –Special (reserved) message –Small (a few bits) Frame formats: Token Passing

26. Frame Formats SD, ED: mark start, end of frame AC: Access Control Byte: token bit: value 0 means token can be seized, value 1 means data packet to follow access control byte priority bits: priority level of this packet reservation bits: station can write these bits to prevent stations with lower priority packet from seizing the token next time it becomes free FC: Frame Control: used for monitoring and maintenance, distinguish control frames and information frames

27. Frame Formats (cont’d) source and destination address: as in Ethernet data: packet from network layer checksum: error detection FS: Frame Status: set by destination, read by receiver set to indicate that destination is up, packet copied OK from ring

28. Token Passing Paradigm Station –Waits for token to arrive –Transmits one packet around ring –Transmits token around ring When no station has data to send –Token circulates continuously

29. Token Passing Ring Transmission Station waits for token before sending Signal travels around entire ring Sender receives its own transmission

30. Token Release Mechanisms Release After Reception (RAR): –Each station reissues the free token only after it receives the transmitted frame. –Used on lower speed token rings ( <= 4Mbps). Release After Transmission (RAT): –Each station attaches a free token at the end of its frame –Possible multiple frames propagate in a ring –Used on higher speed token rings (>= 16Mbps)

31. Strengths Of Token Ring Approach Easy detection of –Broken ring –Hardware failures –Interference

32. Weaknesses Of Token Ring Approach Broken wire disables entire ring Point-to-point wiring –Awkward in office environment –Difficult to add/remove stations

33. Token Passing Ring Technologies IBM Token Ring –Originally operated at 4 Mbps –Later version operated at 16 Mbps Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) –Operates at 100 Mbps

34. FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface A high-speed (100 Mbps) LAN (token ring) technology Suitable also for MAN It uses fiber as its transmission medium Can attach 1000 stations, can be up to 200 km Based on two counter-rotating (independent) fiber rings. Only one is used Maximum frame size = 4500 bytes

35. FDDI (cont’d) Using RAT mechanisms Modes of data transfer –Support synchronous (periodic) traffic: voice and video Highest priority Useless if it is late Allocated a maximum amount of time to transmit sync data at each station –Support asynchronous data: normal data

36. FDDI Terminology FDDI –Uses optical fibers –High reliability –Immune to interference CDDI –FDDI over copper –Same frame format –Same data rate –Less noise immunity

37. FDDI Hub Technology Part of FDDI standard Stations attach to hub Same frame format and data rate as FDDI Called star-shaped ring

38. FDDI Failure Recovery Uses two rings. Automatic failure recovery Terminology –DAS: Dual Attachment Stations –Concentrator: allow for multiple stations on the ring –SAS: Single Attachment Stations

39. The two counter-rotating provide fault- tolerance, i.e., self-healing ring FDDI Failure Recovery (cont’d)

40. FDDI Timers and Data Transmission THT (Token Holding Time): upper bound on how long a station can hold the token TRT (Token Rotation Time): interval between two successive arrivals of the token –TRT = ActiveNodes THT + RingLatency TTRT (Target Token Rotation Time): the maximum limit that a given station can hold the token (could differ between stations)

41. Timed Token Protocol Each station measures its TRT Upon receiving the Token, transmits any waiting sync data (up to some limit) If measured TRT > TTRT, token is too late, station can not transmit If TRT < TTRT, token is early, station can send data up to THT (THT < TTRT-TRT).

42. Timed Token Protocol See example in class