1. WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? WHAT IS MATURATION? WHAT ARE THE DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT? 1. BIOSOCIAL (PHYSICAL) 2. COGNITIVE 3. PSYCHOSOCIAL

2. 2 WHAT ARE SOME CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VS. NURTURE CONTINUITY VS. DISCONTINUITY RELEVANCE OF FIRST YEAR OF LIFE TO LATER DEVELOPMENT (CRITICAL VS. SENSITIVE PERIOD)

3. 3 History of “Infancy” Pre-Renaissance – children valued but taken for granted Renaissance (1500s) – more interest in the study of things including development Empiricism (1600-1700s)

4. 4 more…History of “Infancy” John Locke (1600s) – “TABULA RASA” Jean Rousseau (1700s) – infants born good from God; corrupted by Man U. S. (late 1800s) – children are often workers in industry; abuse leads to ultimate reform and study of development

5. 5  WHAT IS A THEORY? EXPLANATION of some relationship among variables TIES TOGETHER different pieces of evidence into a framework GUIDES what we investigate in research

6. 6 WHAT A THEORY IS NOT NOT A FACT NOT CAST IN STONE NOT THE END OF A RESEARCH QUESTION NOT UNTESTABLE

7. 7 WHAT ARE MAJOR DEV. THEORIES? PSYCHOSOCIAL (PSYCHOANALYTIC) BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (BEHAVIORAL) COGNITIVE

8. 8 FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYTIC VIEW STRUCTURE OF THE MIND ID (present at birth) EGO (present by about age 1) SUPEREGO (present by about age 3)

9. 9 PSYCHOANALYTIC CONCEPTS LIBIDO EROGENOUS ZONES FIXATION UNCONSCIOUS

10. 10 More FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYTIC VIEW STAGE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 1.ORAL (0 - 1.5 years) 2.ANAL (1.5 - 3 years) 3.PHALLIC (3 - 5 years) 4.LATENT (5 - 13 years) 5.GENITAL (13 years - adulthood)

11. 11 ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Like Freud, said development is affected by CONFLICTS Like Freud, said development is STAGE- LIKE (DISCONTINUOUS) Unlike Freud, conflicts are NOT pleasure driven Erikson - conflicts are driven by unconscious NEED FOR IDENTITY

12. 12 ERIK ERIKSON’S 8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES (only 4 are shown) (0-1 yrs.) TRUST VS. MISTRUST (1-3 yrs.) AUTONOMY VS. SHAME (3-6 yrs.) INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (7-11 yrs.) INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (More STAGES in Berger text!)

13. 13 Piaget (he’ll be back later)

14. 14 BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORY) EXAMINES THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS ON WHAT AND HOW WE LEARN SOMETIMES FOCUSES ON EVENTS THAT PRECEDE BEHAVIOR SOMETIMES FOCUSES ON EVENTS FOLLOWING BEHAVIOR

15. 15 MORE BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS MUST DEFINE WHAT IS BEING LEARNED MUST DEFINE ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS THAT AFFECT BEHAVIOR BASED HEAVILY ON EMPIRICAL DATA TO ASSESS LEARNING RELIES ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD

16. 16 TYPES OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) DISCRETE TRIAL LEARNING (OPERANT CONDITIONING)

17. 17 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING INVOLVES LEARNING WHAT EVENTS IN ENVIRONMENT “GO TOGETHER” IS LEARNING OF “ASSOCIATIONS” LEARNED BY HAVING EVENTS PAIRED WITH ONE ANOTHER EX) LITTLE ALBERT CASE STUDY OTHER EXAMPLES FOLKS?

18. 18 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXAMPLES Baby Maria gets excited when she hears mother’s voice. Why? What’s been learned? Baby Jonah gets upset when he sees a doctor’s needle. Why? What’s been learned? Baby Isabella gets excited when she hears daddy’s car. Why? What’s been learned? Mother’s breast starts to give milk when she hears baby’s cry. Why? What’s been learned?

19. 19 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ACTION At first baby sees needle and is not upset (sight of needle is neutral or UNCONDITIONED STIM.). After getting a shot, baby gets upset (this occurs naturally without learning—unconditioned response). Baby now “associates” the needle with the pain (she learned they “go together”) This results in responding to needle as something to be avoided (needle is now a learned or CONDITIONED STIMULUS)

20. 20 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ACTION (LITTLE ALBERT CASE STUDY)

21. 21 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ACTION (WORD MEANINGS) At first, sound of word “bottle” means nothing. BUT,when said by Mom who is showing bottle to baby (pairing the two stimuli)… Baby begins to “connect” sound of word “bottle” and the actual bottle itself. Now, if baby hears “want a bottle?” she gets excited (unless she has a stomach ache, of course!)

22. 22 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ACTION (A RELEVANT COLLEGE EXAMPLE) What would happen to your emotions right now if I were to say the following: BLUE BOOKS! POP QUIZ! FINAL EXAM! TAX AUDIT! Why do we respond this way?

23. 23 OPERANT CONDITIONING INVOLVES LEARNING WHAT TO DO BASED ON CONSEQUENCES OF PRIOR “DOING” LEARNED BY HAVING BEHAVIORS FOLLOWED BY PARTICULAR CONSEQUENCES EXAMPLES? (see next slide!)

24. 24 OPERANT CONDITIONING EXAMPLES After Baby Ringo makes a sound resembling a word, his mom gives him a big hug. Ringo makes the sound again (wouldn’t you?) After Baby Bobby sticks his finger in the dog’s nose, the dog barks loudly and snaps at him. Bobby does NOT do that again! After Baby Angelina cries, her mother comes to comfort her. Baby Angelina thinks this works well and does it again the next time she is upset.

25. 25 OPERANT CONDITIONING TYPES REINFORCEMENT - a consequence that increases the chance that the behavior will be made again PUNISHMENT - a consequence that decreases the chance that the behavior will be made again

26. 26 OPERANT CONDITIONING TYPES REINFORCEMENT - a consequence that increases the chance that the behavior will be made again - can be POSITIVE (present something such as hugs, praise, kisses, access to TV or video games, stars, stickers) - or NEGATIVE (take something away such as pain, hunger, fear, annoyances, wet diaper)

27. 27 OPERANT CONDITIONING TYPES PUNISHMENT - a consequence that decreases the chance that the behavior will be made again - can be POSITIVE (present something such as yell, loud noise, frown, pain, restraint) - or NEGATIVE (take something away such as access to TV or video games, privileges, access to dessert)

28. 28 ANOTHER OPERANT CONDITIONING TYPE: EXTINCTION Like punishment, likely to decrease behavior but is done by ignoring child’s behavior (assuming this behavior had previously been reinforced) NEVER use this if behavior child is making is dangerous

29. 29 “SIDE EFFECTS” OF OPERANT CONDITIONING REINFORCEMENT  HAPPY PUNISHMENT  NOT HAPPY EXTINCTION  NOT HAPPY

30. 30 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (LEARN BY MODELING) According to this theory, children have natural tendency to IMITATE. They can learn just by watching without having behavior reinforced or punished. BUT…children ARE often given reinforcement for imitating so it is hard to determine if this is purely innate

31. 31 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY STUDIES MELTZOFF & MOORE - infants imitate adult facial expressions almost at birth; also often imitate emotional responding BANDURA AND COLLEAGUES - aggressive behavior can be learned just by watching it (but even more so if child’s aggressiveness is then reinforced)

32. 32 WHAT ARE MAJOR DEV. THEORIES? 1. PSYCHOSOCIAL (PSYCHOANALYTIC) 2. BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (BEHAVIORAL) 3. COGNITIVE

33. 33 COGNITIVE THEORIES OF DEV. PIAGETIAN - “structure” of information INFORMATION PROCESSING - input/output of information

34. 34 PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS SCHEMA (or SCHEME) – the “blueprints” or “scripts” of knowledge about the world

35. 35 PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS EQUILIBRIUM – innate tendency to try to achieve “balance” between what you think you know about the world and what the world is really all about

36. 36 PIAGETIAN CONCEPTS ASSIMILATION – adding new information to already existing schemes ACCOMMODATION – changing old schemes to new ones based on acquisition of new knowledge

37. 37 WHAT DRIVES DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO PIAGET? Innate, biologically driven tendency to seek out information about the world Development progression is limited by maturation Says you cannot learn something until you are ready no matter how good the teacher

38. 38 PIAGETIAN STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEV. SENSORIMOTOR (0-2 years) What do schemas consist of? - only what the baby can see, feel, hear, do in the present - baby cannot really represent information symbolically and….

39. 39 BABY HAS NO OBJECT PERMANENCE

40. 40 PIAGETIAN STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEV. PRE-OPERATIONAL (2-6 years) What do schemas consist of? - child now has symbolic thought - has learned many cause/effect relationships - BUT child lacks much in way of logical reasoning (lacks “operations”)

41. 41 CONSERVATION: One Type of Operation

42. 42 PIAGETIAN STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEV. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (6-11 years) What do schemas consist of? - child now has learned much more in way of logical reasoning (now has “operations”) - child can “test” hypotheses (predictions) - child is poor in ABSTRACT LOGIC (“what if” situations that are not based in real events)

43. 43 PIAGETIAN STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEV. FORMAL OPERATIONAL (11+ years) What do schemas consist of? - child can now “test” hypotheses (predictions) in ABSTRACT LOGIC (“what if” situations that are not based in real events) - child can plan and achieve long-term goals more realistically

44. 44 INFORMATION PROCESSING Examines how information is accepted into working memory, processed, stored, and outputted as action.   infoprocessingaction

45. 45 RESEARCH METHODS TO STUDY DEVELOPMENT VARIABLE THEORY HYPOTHESIS SCIENTIFIC METHOD (see next slide)

46. 46 SCIENTIFIC METHOD Research question proposed Identify variables Hypothesize outcome Collect data; objectivity required!!!! Compare actual outcome to prediction Modify theory as data indicates (Rinse and repeat! )

47. 47 DEVELOPMENTAL VARIABLES WHAT THE BABY DOES (DEPENDENT VARIABLES) Behavior: language, social interactions, attention, personality traits, informational learning, play WHAT THE ENVIRONMENT/GENES ARE DOING TO BABY (INDEPDENDENT VARIABLES) - parenting, stimulation, schooling, maturation

48. 48 TYPES OF RESEARCH EXPERIMENT - experimenter purposefully changes something in baby’s environment and measures any changes - allows us to determine what different environmental variables do to the baby’s development

49. 49 TYPES OF RESEARCH CORRELATION - experimenter ONLY observes something in baby’s environment that has changed and measures any changes in baby - allows us to maybe determine what different environmental variables do to the baby’s development - often called OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

50. 50 TYPES OF CORRELATIONS POSITIVE - as one variable increases so does the other;   as one variable decreases so does the other   Examples: 1. Number of cupcakes you eat, and your weight 2. Number of layers of clothes you wear, and your warmth level 3. Amount of words made by a baby, and the amount of attention given to the baby

51. 51 TYPES OF CORRELATIONS NEGATIVE - as one variable increases, other decreases   as one variable decreases, other increases   Examples: 1. Number of hours you exercise, and your weight 2. Number of beers you drink, and your scores on an exam 3. Amount of crying by a baby, and the amount of sleep gotten by the parents!!!

52. 52 RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR DEVELOPMENT How does infant change as a function of age? - can answer this using either a LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN or CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN

53. 53 LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN Randomly select a sample of children at the same young age (this group is called a COHORT) Measure their capabilities for the variable you are interested in Continue to measure their capabilities at selected age intervals (more on next slide…)

54. 54 LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN Advantages: provides excellent measure as to how aging affects the infant Disadvantage: time consuming and expensive; subject attrition (“mortality”)

55. 55 CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN Randomly select some children at one age, some at another age, and some at another age (ex., 6 mos., 12 mos., and 18 mos. old) Measure their capabilities for the variable you are interested in Compare the groups to see if the children differ as a function of age (more on next slide…)

56. 56 CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN Advantages: easy to do; can be done in one day; relatively cheap to do; no subject attrition Disadvantage: kids might differ not from age, but from other things like time they grew up in (called a CHORT EFFECT)

57. 57 GENETIC DIVERSITY

58. 58 UNITS OF HEREDITY CHROMOSOMES - threadlike structures in nucleus of all body cells - body cells have 46 (23 pairs) - are blueprints for maturation, growth, and cell functioning - abnormalities may result in death, or deficits in functioning - contain GENES and DNA (next…)

59. 59 UNITS OF HEREDITY DNA – nitrogen-based molecules that make up GENES GENES – units of DNA that are arranged on chromosomes in pairs - gene pairs determine TRAITS - gene pairs are a bit different for all except for identical twins, triplets, etc.

60. 60 CHROMOSOMES How does infant get 23 pairs? Mother contributes 23 singles in ovum (egg cell or female GAMETE) Father contributes another 23 singles (from a single sperm cell or male GAMETE) These fuse at fertilization to become 23 pairs in nucleus of ZYGOTE A single Mom and Dad can produce about 8,000,000 possible viable combinations of genetic material!!!!!!!

61. 61 CHROMOSOMES How does infant get GENDER? Determined by 23 rd chromosome pair XX = female XY = male Mother ALWAYS contributes X Father can contribute EITHER X or Y Father ALWAYS DETERMINES gender of baby

62. 62 EFFECTS OF GENES ADDITIVE EFFECTS - gene from Mom and gene from Dad AVERAGE OUT in the child (height?) NON-ADDITIVE EFFECTS - gene from one parent “wins out” over gene from other parent OR gene is the same from both parents (see next slide!)

63. 63 NON-ADDITIVE GENES DOMINANT VS. RECESSIVE - Dominant gene is ALWAYS expressed - Recessive gene is typically ONLY expressed when paired with another recessive gene (see next slide…)

64. 64 What is a “CARRIER”? Person who has one recessive gene and one dominant gene for a trait The recessive gene is hidden (not expressed) Memory aid: think about how undercover police hide and carry a weapon. No one knows it’s there but it’s still being “carried.”

65. 65 Why does Ringo have blue eyes? Why was I named “Ringo”? Janie JohnnyJoanie Janie JohnnyJoanie

66. 66 NON-ADDITIVE GENE TRAITS DOMINANTRECESSIVE Curly hairstraight hair Free earlobeattached lobes  Tongue curlingtongue straight Colored skinalbinism (no pigment) Dimplesno dimples Type A bloodType O Blood clotsHemophilia Normal metabolismPhenylketonuria

67. 67 DANGEROUS JEANS!!

68. 68 DANGEROUS GENES!! Estimated that each person carries on average about 20 recessive genes that could cause serious abnormalities Fortunately, unlikely that you will mate with someone who also carries those recessive genes

69. 69 SEX-LINKED GENES FOUND ON 23 CHROMOSOME PAIR ON X CHROMOSOMES (NOT Y) If RECESSIVE, will be expressed in MALES!!! Why? Because there is nothing to counteract it (is a single gene instead of a pair) Examples: some types of colorblindness; also may account for many forms of illness and MR seen in males

70. 70 CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Occurs when gamete formed through uneven division Gamete has wrong number of single chromosomes (NOT usual 23!)

71. 71 CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Scary news: this actually occurs in 50% of all ZYGOTES!!!!! But…most miscarry very early because infant is not viable 1/200 births has some form of chromosomal abnormality Characteristics of this are called SYNDROMES

72. 72 What are some SYNDROMES caused by chromosomal abnormalities? DOWN SYNDROME (TRI-SOMY 21) - most often occurs from extra 21 st chromosome (“3 CELLS on 21”) - easily recognizable from outward characteristics

73. 73 SYNDROMES Caused by SEX Chromosomal (23 rd Pair) Abnormalities X_ TURNER SYNDROME XXY KELINFELTER SYNDROME XYY “SUPERMALE” SYNDROME XXX, or XXXX (Unnamed) “Broken” XFragile X (Fra X) SYNDROME

74. 74 PREDICTING AND DETECTING GENETIC or CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES One option is GENETIC COUNSELING 1. If already have child with abnormalities 2. If have relatives with abnormalities 3. If already had miscarriages 4. If parent age is high 5. If gene pool has had problems (Tay-Sachs in some of Jewish descent; Sickle-cell Anemia in some of African descent)

75. 75 PREDICTING AND DETECTING GENETIC or CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Carrier (parent) blood test Examples: sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs, PKU, hemophilia

76. 76 PREDICTING AND DETECTING GENETIC or CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Fetal Tests 1. AMNIOCENTESIS – from amniotic fluid 2. CHORION VILLUS SAMPLING – from placental membrane (chorion) 3. ULTRASOUND – externally obtained image (see picture)

77. 77 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PREGNANCY LASTS ABOUT 38-40 WEEKS (OR ABOUT NINE MONTHS) HAS THREE PERIODS OF GROWTH: ZYGOTE (GERMINAL) EMBRYO FETUS

78. 78 1. ZYGOTE DEVELOPMENT During germinal period (0-14 days), the following occurs: – MITOSIS (CLEAVAGE) – NO GROWTH IN SIZE – FORMS TWO LAYERS – one becomes PLACENTA (other the BABY, of course!)

79. 79 2. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT During WEEKS 3 – 8 the following occurs: DIFFERENTIATION (CELLS SPECIALIZE!) into 3 layers: ENDODERM (inner) MESODERM (middle) ECTODERM (outer) NEURAL TUBE (early brain and spinal cord) see next

80. 80 NEURAL TUBE PROBLEMS ANENCEPHALY (missing cortex) SPINA BIFIDA (exposed SPINAL NERVES Both reduced by FOLIC ACID (type of B vitamin)

81. 81 PRENATAL BRAIN CELLS (neuron growth) BRAIN FACTORY: 10,000 generated per minute!!

82. 82 EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT HOW DOES GROWTH OCCUR? CEPHALOCAUDAL “Head down” PROXIMAL-DISTAL “Center outward”

83. 83 3. FETUS DEVELOPMENT WEEKS 9-40 MOSTLY MAKES UP 2-3 TRIMESTER 2 ND TRIMESTER – ORGANS COME “ONLINE” 3 RD TRIMESTER – MOSTLY GROWTH plus MYELIN FORMATION – Becomes VIABLE in 3 rd Trimester!

84. 84