1. There Are Three Major Types of Rocks (2)
Igneous – forms the bulk of earth’s crust
Granite (formed underground)
Lava rock
Metamorphic
Anthracite → coal
Slate → shale
Marble → limestone

2. The Earth’s Rocks Are Recycled Very Slowly
Rock cycle
Slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes
Dolomite (see the shells)and a cave of limestone

3. Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock)
Erosion
Transportation
Weathering
Deposition
Igneous rock
Granite, pumice, basalt
Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone
Heat, pressure
Cooling
Heat, pressure, stress
Magma (molten rock)
Figure 14.13
Natural capital: the rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes. Rocks are recycled over millions of years by three processes: erosion, melting, and metamorphism, which produce sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. Rock from any of these classes can be converted to rock of either of the other two classes, or can be recycled within its own class (Concept 14-2). Question: What are three ways in which the rock cycle benefits your lifestyle?
Melting
Metamorphic rock
Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite
Fig , p. 354

4. 14-3 What Are Mineral Resources, and what are their Environmental Effects?
Concept 14-3A Some naturally occurring materials in the earth’s crust can be extracted and made into useful products in processes that provide economic benefits and jobs.
Concept 14-3B Extracting and using mineral resources can disturb the land, erode soils, produce large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air, water, and soil.

5. We Use a Variety of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
Mineral resource (concentration of a naturally occurring material)
Fossil fuels (coal)
Metallic minerals (Al, Fe, Cu)
Nonmetallic minerals (sand, gravel)
Ore – contains enough of the mineral to be profitable to mine
High-grade ore
Low-grade ore
Importance and examples of nonrenewable metal and nonmetal mineral resources

6. Mineral Categories Rock-forming minerals
Most common minerals in the Earth’s crust, e.g. olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, the clay minerals, feldspar, quartz, calcite and dolomite.
Accessory minerals
Minerals that are common but usually are found only in small amounts, e.g. chlorite, garnet, hematite, limonite, magnetite, and pyrite.
Gems
A mineral that is prized primarily for its beauty. (Although some gems, like diamonds are also used industrially), e.g. diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire.

7. Mineral Categories (cont.)
Ore minerals
Minerals from which metals or other elements can be profitably recovered, e.g. native gold, native silver, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite.
Industrial minerals
Minerals are industrially important, but are mined for purposes other than the extraction of metals, e.g. halite for table salt.

8. Mineral Classification (according to their anions)
Native elements: e.g. gold, silver, platinum, and copper.
Oxides: Elements plus oxygen, Simple formulas, e.g. ice H2O, Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4, quartz SiO2, corundum Al2O3, etc.
Sulfides: Elements plus sulfur, e.g. Galena (PbS), Pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), and Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2.).
Sulfates: Elements plus (SO4)2-, e.g. Gypsum (CaSO42H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4), and barite (BaSO4).

9. Mineral Classification (according to their anions) (cont.)
Halides: Halogen elements plus various cations, e.g. Halite (NaCl), and sylvite (KCl).
Phosphates: Elements plus (PO4)3-
Carbonates: Elements plus (CO3)2- , e.g. calcite (CaCO3), and Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).
cement
8) Silicates: elements plus silica ion(SiO4)4-, silicates make up 95% of the Earth’s crust.

10. QUARTZ –SiO2 Uses: silica for glass, electrical
components, optical lenses, abrasives, gemstones, ornamental stone, building stone, etc.
Quartz is the most common mineral on Earth. It is found in nearly every geological environment and is at least a component of almost every rock type. It is also the most varied in terms of varieties, colors and forms.

11. Color is as variable as the spectrum, but clear quartz is by far the most common color
Luster is glassy to vitreous as crystals, while cryptocrystalline forms are usually waxy to dull but can be vitreous.
Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent, cryptocrystalline forms can be translucent or opaque.
Cleavage is very weak in three directions (rhombohedral).
Fracture is conchoidal.
Hardness is 7
Specific Gravity is 2.65
Streak is white.

12. Mineral Use Has Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of the processes of mining and converting minerals into useful products
Generates income, provides revenue for states and employment
Disadvantages – energy intensive and can disturb the land, erode soil and produce solid waste and pollution

13. Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Melting metal
Surface mining
Metal ore
Separation of ore from gangue
Smelting
Melting metal
Conversion to product
Discarding of product
Recycling
Figure 14.14
Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste.
Stepped Art
Fig , p. 355

14. NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources
Steps
Environmental Effects
Mining
Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards; mine waste dumping; oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat
Exploration, extraction
Processing
Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat
Transportation, purification, manufacturing
Figure 14.15
Some harmful environmental effects of extracting, processing, and using nonrenewable mineral and energy resources (Concept 14-3B). Providing the energy required to carry out each step causes additional pollution and environmental degradation. Question: What are three mineral resources that you used today? Which of these harmful environmental effects might have resulted from obtaining and using these resources?
Use
Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat
Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding
Fig , p. 356

15. There Are Several Ways to Remove Mineral Deposits (1)
Surface mining
Shallow deposits removed- overburden, (spoils)
tailings(material dredged from streams)
Open Pit
Strip mining (when the ore is in horizontal beds)
area (flat land) and contour strip (mountainous)
Mountain top removal (Appalachian Mts)
Subsurface mining
Deep deposits removed

16. Natural Capital Degradation: Open-Pit Mine in Western Australia

17. Natural Capital Degradation: Contour Strip Mining Used in Hilly or Mountainous Region

18. Undisturbed land Overburden Highwall Coal seam Overburden Pit Bench
Figure 14.17
Natural capital degradation: contour strip mining of coal used in hilly or mountainous terrain.
Spoil banks
Fig , p. 357

19. Natural Capital Degradation: Mountaintop Coal Mining in West Virginia, U.S.

20. Mining Has Harmful Environmental Effects (1)
Scarring and disruption of the land surface
E.g., spoils banks
Loss of rivers and streams
Subsidence

21. Mining Has Harmful Environmental Effects (2)
Major pollution of water and air
Effect on aquatic life
Large amounts of solid waste 21

22. Banks of Waste or Spoils Created by Coal Area Strip Mining in Colorado, U.S.

23. Illegal Gold Mine

24. Ecological Restoration of a Mining Site in New Jersey, U.S.

25. Removing Metals from Ores Has Harmful Environmental Effects (1)
Ore extracted by mining
Ore mineral
Gangue
Smelting
Water pollution

26. Removing Meals from Ores Has Harmful Environmental Effects (2)
Liquid and solid hazardous wastes produced
Use of cyanide salt of extract gold from its ore
Summitville gold mine: Colorado, U.S.

27. Natural Capital Degradation: Summitville Gold Mining Site in Colorado, U.S.

28. 14-4 How Long Will Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last?
Concept 14-4A All nonrenewable mineral resources exist in finite amounts, and as we get closer to depleting any mineral resource, the environmental impacts of extracting it generally become more harmful.
Concept 14-4B An increase in the price of a scarce mineral resource can lead to increased supplies and more efficient use of the mineral, but there are limits to this effect.

29. Mineral Resources Are Distributed Unevenly (1)
Most of the nonrenewable mineral resources supplied by
United States
Canada
Russia
South Africa
Australia

30. Mineral Resources Are Distributed Unevenly (2)
Strategic metal resources
Manganese (Mn)
Cobalt (Co)
Chromium (Cr)
Platinum (Pt)

31. Science Focus: The Nanotechnology Revolution
Nanotechnology, tiny tech
Nanoparticles
Are they safe?
Investigate potential ecological, economic, health, and societal risks
Develop guidelines for their use until more is known about them

32. Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Can Be Economically Depleted
Future supply depends on
Actual or potential supply of the mineral
Rate at which it is used
When it becomes economically depleted
Recycle or reuse existing supplies
Waste less
Use less
Find a substitute
Do without

33. Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C
Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices A
Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries B
Production
Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries C
Figure 14.23
Natural capital depletion: depletion curves for a nonrenewable resource (such as aluminum or copper) using three sets of assumptions. Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs.
Present
Depletion time A
Depletion time B
Depletion time C
Time
Fig , p. 361

34. Market Prices Affect Supplies of Nonrenewable Minerals
Subsidies and tax breaks to mining companies keep mineral prices artificially low
Does this promote economic growth and national security?
Scarce investment capital hinders the development of new supplies of mineral resources

35. Case Study: The U.S. General Mining Law of 1872
Encouraged mineral exploration and mining of hard-rock minerals on U.S. public lands
Developed to encourage settling the West (1800s)
Until 1995, land could be bought for 1872 prices
Companies must pay for clean-up now

36. Is Mining Lower-Grade Ores the Answer?
Factors that limit the mining of lower-grade ores
Increased cost of mining and processing larger volumes of ore
Availability of freshwater
Environmental impact
Improve mining technology
Use microorganisms, in situ
Slow process
What about genetic engineering of the microbes?

37. Can We Extend Supplies by Getting More Minerals from the Ocean? (1)
Mineral resources dissolved in the ocean-low concentrations
Deposits of minerals in sediments along the shallow continental shelf and near shorelines

38. Can We Extend Supplies by Getting More Minerals from the Ocean? (2)
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Metals from the ocean floor: manganese nodules
Effect of mining on aquatic life
Environmental impact

39. 14-5 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainability?
Concept We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources, reduce resource waste, and recycle and reuse minerals.

40. We Can Find Substitutes for Some Scarce Mineral Resources (1)
Materials revolution
Nanotechnology
Silicon
High-strength plastics
Drawbacks?

41. We Can Find Substitutes for Some Scarce Mineral Resources (2)
Substitution is not a cure-all
Pt: industrial catalyst
Cr: essential ingredient of stainless steel

42. We Can Recycle and Reuse Valuable Metals
Recycling
Lower environmental impact than mining and processing metals from ores
Reuse

43. There Are Many Ways to Use Mineral Resources More Sustainability
How can we decrease our use and waste of mineral resources?
Pollution and waste prevention programs
Pollution Prevention Pays (3P)
Cleaner production

44. Solutions: Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals

45. Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems: Copying Nature
Mimic nature: recycle and reuse most minerals and chemicals
Resource exchange webs
Ecoindustrial parks
Industrial forms of biomimicry
Benefits

46. Surplus natural gas Electric power plant
Sludge
Pharmaceutical plant
Local farmers
Sludge
Greenhouses
Waste heat
Waste heat
Waste heat
Fish farming
Waste heat
Surplus natural gas
Electric power plant
Oil refinery
Fly ash
Surplus sulfur
Waste calcium sulfate
Figure 14.25
Solutions: an industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg, Denmark, reduces waste production by mimicking a food web in natural ecosystems. The wastes of one business become the raw materials for another. Question: Is there an industrial ecosystem near where you live or go to school? If not, think about where and how such a system could be set up.
Surplus natural gas
Waste heat
Cement manufacturer
Sulfuric acid producer
Wallboard factory
Area homes
Fig , p. 367