1. THE CNS

2. EXCEPTION-CRANIAL NERVES

3. Ok…to the brain! Gross Anatomy of the brain: Many ways to organize the CNS

4. Here’s a good one!

7. BRAINSTEM/ HINDBRAIN

9. Bainstem (Medulla) critical functions
Ascending and Descending Fiber Tracts
All parasympathetic tone HR
Temp BP
Etc

10. Brainstem: The “Reticular activating system”
Many tiny brain nuclei collectively involved in modulation of arousal

11. The RAS- Locus Coereleus

12. RAS- the Raphe Nucleus Raphe Nucleus – High in Serotonin (5HT)
Modulation of mood, sleep states, dreaming

13. BRAINSTEM- Pons and Cerebellum

14. Behavioral Functions of the Cerebellum
Direction
Amplitude
Force
Timing
Posture
Motor learning/speech

15. Midbrain Major structures of interest:
Superior and inferior colliculi- orienting reflexes
Substantia nigra- projects to striatum (high Dopamine (DA) content)
Peri-aqueductal grey- modulation of pain
Ventral tegmental area- projects to nucleus accumbens ( high in DA content)

16. Tectum: the dorsal side of the midbrain

17. MIDBRAIN

18. Nigro-striatal system
The substantia nigra sends DA axons to the striatum

19. Midbrain-
The ventral tegmental area
(VTA)

20. VTA to Nucleus Accumbens: The Mesolimbic Dopamine pathway

21. Thalamus, Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland
Diencephalon
Thalamus, Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

22. The Thalamus

23. Thalamus-highly organized Subnuclei are specific for different kinds of sensory input

24. The Hypothalamus
-rostral and slightly inferior to the thalamus.
- Involved in modulation of the 4 F’s

25. Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

26. Bridge to the endocrine system:
The Pituitary…“Master Gland.”

27. The pituitary influences all other glandular functions

28. Forebrain
(Telencephalon)
Cortex
Basal ganglia
Limbic System

29. Basal Ganglia Neostriatum Globus Pallidus Substantia nigra others
Caudate nucleus and putamen
Globus Pallidus
Substantia nigra
others

30. Nigro-striatal CCT Functions
Parkinsons’
Slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
Stiffness (rigidity)
Tremor
Loss of balance (postural instability)
Speech and facial expression

31. **Difficulty in initiating Movement

35. Striatal-Pallidal CCT functions?
Huntingtons
Tourettes’ -

36. Tourettes
Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics. The early symptoms of TS are almost always noticed first in childhood, with the average onset between the ages of 7 and 10 years. TS occurs in people from all ethnic groups; males are affected about three to four times more often than females. It is estimated that 200,000 Americans have the most severe form of TS, and as many as one in 100 exhibit milder and less complex symptoms such as chronic motor or vocal tics or transient tics of childhood. Although TS can be a chronic condition with symptoms lasting a lifetime, most people with the condition experience their worst symptoms in their early teens, with improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood.

37. Tics are classified as either simple or complex
Tics are classified as either simple or complex. Simple motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive movements that involve a limited number of muscle groups. Some of the more common simple tics include eye blinking and other vision irregularities, facial grimacing, shoulder shrugging, and head or shoulder jerking. Simple vocalizations might include repetitive throat-clearing, sniffing, or grunting sounds. Complex tics are distinct, coordinated patterns of movements involving several muscle groups. Complex motor tics might include facial grimacing combined with a head twist and a shoulder shrug. Other complex motor tics may actually appear purposeful, including sniffing or touching objects, hopping, jumping, bending, or twisting. Simple vocal tics may include throat-clearing, sniffing/snorting, grunting, or barking. More complex vocal tics include words or phrases. Perhaps the most dramatic and disabling tics include motor movements that result in self-harm such as punching oneself in the face or vocal tics including coprolalia (uttering swear words) or echolalia (repeating the words or phrases of others). Most patients experience peak tic severity before the mid-teen years with improvement for the majority of patients in the late teen years and early adulthood. Approximately 10 percent of those affected have a progressive or disabling course that lasts into adulthood.

38. Tics are involuntary. They are brief, repetitive movements, which are either motor such as blinking or head jerking, or vocal such as throat clearing.

39. Huntington’s chorea
Huntington's Chorea is principally characterized by hyperkinesias - abnormal, purposeless, involuntary motor movements that can occur spontaneously or only when the patient is trying to do something. These movements may be repetitive or non-repetitive.
Sudden jerky, involuntary movements (chorea) throughout your body
A wide, prancing gait
Severe problems with balance and coordination
Difficulty shifting your gaze without moving your head
Hesitant, halting or slurred speech
Inability to swallow
Dementia

40. LIMBIC SYSTEM Basal forebrain Interconnected Affective responses
Impulsive…low consciousness
Many structures
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Septum/ nucleus accumbens- will be discussed later

41. Amygdala: general emotional significance of environmental stimuli
evaluate the significance of stimuli and generate emotional responses
generate hormonal secretions and autonomic reactions that accompany strong emotions
damage causes “psychic blindness” and the inability to recognize fear in facial expressions and voice
Projects to hypothalamus, Hippocampus, cortex
Keywords: brain-based theory of emotions, amygdala, psychic blindness

42. Amygdala and aggression?

43. Amygdala and fear?

44. The Hippocampus processes events from short term to long term memory
The Hippocampus processes events from short term to long term memory. The amygdala can influence memory processes as the emotional state of the learner can alter the memory.

45. CEREBRAL CORTEX
Wrinkled
Thin
Layered
Interconnected
Plastic

46. Major regions of CTX

47. Corpus collosum

48. Hemispheres

49. Almost all of Right handers and about 70% of left handers show these kinds of functional asymmetries

50. Emotion and the cerebral hemispheres
Catastrophic (left hemisphere cortex lost) vs
indifferent reactions (right cortex lost) to cortical damage

51. LOBES

52. OCCIPITAL LOBE The primary Visual Cortex -functional blindness
-Visual agnosias

53. TEMPORAL LOBES

54. Temporal lobe damage may result in any number of problems including any of these syndromes
Functional deafness
-Anomias
-Aprosodia
-Werniches’ syndrome

55. Parietal Lobes
Primary somatosensory cortex

56. The sensory homunculus and somatotopic organization
Primary somatosensory cortex damage may produce
-somatasagnosias
-neglect
-anosagnosia

57. FRONTAL LOBES

58. 1st -Frontal lobes and speech
Broca’s aphasia
Werniche’s aphasia (temporal lobe to frontal lobe circuits)

59. What about the rest of the frontal lobe? -Phineas Gage

60. rod

61. Brain-Based Theory of Emotions
Frontal lobes
influence people’s conscious emotional feelings and ability to act in planned ways based on feelings (e.g., effects of prefrontal lobotomy)
Some scientists contend that the prefrontal cortex normally acts as a brake that can suppress urges or impulses by communicating with other brain areas that mediate fear and aggression, such as the amygdala.
Parietal
Frontal
Occipital
Temporal
left frontal lobe
may be most
involved in
processing
positive emotions
right frontal lobe
involved with
negative emotions
Keywords: brain-based theory of emotions, frontal lobes

62. General frontal Lobe functions
Awareness
Judgment , planning and anticipation
Personality
Conscious emotions
Organization and mental flexibility
Attention and concentration
Initiation and inhibition of behavior

63. Testing frontal lobe function WCST

65. Inhibition of subcortical impulses; hypofrontality

66. Hypofrontality and aggression
Several recent examinations of violent individuals also jibe with this idea. For example, a brain imaging study of murderers found evidence that, on average, the prefrontal cortex as well as some deeper brain areas, including the amygdala, functioned abnormally. Impaired activity also appeared in a preliminary examination of psychopaths with extensive criminal records who, as a group, generally are prone to violence.      
In another recent study, researchers examined a group of men who were registered at temporary employment agencies and lived in the general population, but were assessed as violent and antisocial. Compared with normal individuals, on average, the violent men had smaller prefrontal areas. Researchers also recently tested another group of people assessed to have moderately violent and impulsive personalities. Again the prefrontal cortex and aggression circuit seem to play a role. The "hot heads" performed poorly on several tasks thought to involve the front brain area, as well as the amygdala, compared with their more even-keeled counterparts, according to preliminary results.