1. Eighteenth-Century Society and Culture The West CHAPTER 17

2. The Aristocracy Included titled noblemen, who had great wealth and power, as well as lesser gentry Formed a cohesive social group, with similar economic and political interests Most aristocrats’ income came from land ownership Wealth increased during eighteenth century, often via agrarian entrepreneurship

3. The Political Power of the Aristocracy Pursued strategies to increase or preserve their power and influence Exercised legislative power in England and in much of central and eastern Europe Under absolute monarchs, the aristocracy controlled the institutions of royal government Possessed judicial authority across Europe, locally and nationally

4. The Cultural World of the Aristocracy Lifestyle emphasized learning, refinement and cultural appreciation Evolution of “polite society” - possession of manners and social graces Patronage of music, literature and visual arts Development of neoclassical architecture and classical music

5. Encounters with Rural Peasantry Transformations in the economic and physical relationships between peasants and their landlords Deteriorating financial conditions of peasantry led to legal challenges to seigniorial system Increasing crimes against property of aristocratic landlords

6. The Social Position of the Bourgeoisie Social and economic distinctions between wealthiest bourgeoisie and the gentry began to fade Emergence of a new, distinct social and cultural identity among the middle and lower ranks of the bourgeoisie Evolution of the “public sphere”

7. The Bourgeois Critique of Aristocracy Contrasted aristocratic luxury and idleness with bourgeois thrift and work ethic Considered aristocrats to be sexually promiscuous and immoral Contrasted the decadent internationalism of aristocratic culture with the wholesome patriotism of the bourgeois Foundation of demands for meritocracy and the expansion of political rights

8. The Enlightenment Defining intellectual and cultural movement of the eighteenth century Evolved from seventeenth century skepticism and scientific method Emergence of a cosmopolitan and international Republic of Letters Constituted an approach to obtaining knowledge, rather than to a defined set of beliefs

9. Themes of Enlightenment Thought Elevation of reason above all other philosophical methods, including religion Development of religious tolerance and criticism of superstition Belief in the continuing improvement of human civilization Pursuit of social justice

10. Enlightenment Political Thought Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1785) - promoted the separation of powers Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1284) - promoted popular sovereignty, but not democracy Thomas Paine (1737-1809) - asserted the existence of inalienable human rights and promoted republicanism

11. Gender, Sexuality and the Enlightenment Emergence of the theory of separate male and female spheres - the ideology of female domesticity After 1790, certain writers began to promote the idea of gender equality Opposed religious restraints upon sexuality as arbitrary and contrary to nature

12. The Spread of Enlightened Ideas Increased literacy and expansion of printing Development of public libraries, museums, book clubs, and scientific and literary societies Emergence of salons, and coffee-house culture Spread of freemasonry Enlightened ideas spread among the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie

13. The Limits of the Enlightenment Religious and spiritual literature continued to flourish Emergence of sensationalist, popular press Further widening of the cultural gap between social élites and the lower classes Persistence of popular blood sports and superstitions, in the face of enlightened criticism

14. Enlightened Absolutism Several monarchs, particularly in central and eastern Europe, used their absolute power to implement Enlightenment reforms Introduction of religious tolerance Abolition of judicial torture and capital punishment Establishment of compulsory education Elimination of serfdom

15. The Enlightenment and Revolution Fostered parliamentary reforms and expansion of the voting franchise in Britain Contributed a critical spirit and political inspiration to the French Revolution Applied by advocates of colonial independence in the Americas Fostered a critique of European imperialism and colonialism

16. Enlightenment and Western Identity A uniquely Western phenomenon Foundation of “Western values” - individual liberty, civil rights, toleration and rational decision making Enlightened ideas have never been fully accepted within western society Promoted a clear sense of western European identity, with respect to the rest of the world

17. Change and Continuity in the Eighteenth Century Façade of social and political stability Growth of a distinct bourgeois political, social and cultural identity Increasing resistance to aristocratic privileges among bourgeoisie and lower classes Intellectual challenge of the Enlightenment to both monarchy and aristocracy