1. Chapter 7 Drugs “Having sniffed the dead man’s lips, I detected a slightly sour smell, and I came to the conclusion that he had poison forced upon him.” — Sherlock Holmes, in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s A Study in Scarlet

2. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 1 Drugs and Crime  A drug is a natural or synthetic substance designed to affect the subject psychologically or physiologically.  “Controlled substances” are drugs that are restricted by law  Controlled Substances Act is a law that was enacted in 1970; it lists illegal drugs, their category and their penalty for possession, sale or use.

3. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 2 Controlled Substances Act  Schedule I—high potential for abuse; no currently acceptable medical use in the US; a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision  Schedule II—high potential for abuse; a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions; abuse may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence  Schedule III—lower potential for abuse than the drugs in I or II; a currently accepted medical use in the US; abuse may lead to moderate physical dependence or high psychological dependence  Schedule IV—low potential for abuse relative to drugs in III; a currently accepted medical use in the US; abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in III  Schedule V—low potential for abuse relative to drugs in IV; currently accepted medical use in the US; abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in IV

4. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 3 Examples of Controlled Substances and Their Schedule Placement  Schedule I—heroin (diacetylmorphine), LSD, marijuana, ecstasy (MDMA)  Schedule II—cocaine, morphine, amphetamines (including methamphetamines), PCP, Ritalin  Schedule III—intermediate acting barbiturates, anabolic steroids, ketamine  Schedule IV—other stimulants and depressants including Valium, Xanan, Librium, phenobarbital, Darvon  Schedule V—codeine found in low doses in cough medicines

5. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 4 Human Components Used for Drug Analysis  Blood  Urine  Hair  Gastric Contents  Bile  Liver tissue  Brain tissue  Kidney tissue  Spleen tissue  Vitreous Humor of the Eye

6. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 5 Identification of Drugs  PDR—Physicians’ Desk Reference  Field Tests—presumptive tests  Laboratory Tests—conclusive tests

7. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 6 Physicians’ Desk Reference PDR—a physicians’ desk reference is used to identify manufactured pills, tablets and capsules. It is updated each year. This can sometimes be a quick and easy identifier of the legally made drugs that may be found at a scene. The reference book gives a picture of the drug, whether it is a prescription, over the counter, or a controlled substance; as well as more detailed information about the drug.

8. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 7 Drug Identification Screening or presumptive tests  Spot or color tests  Microcrystalline test— a reagent is added that produces a crystalline precipitate which is unique for a certain drug.  Chromatography Confirmatory tests  Spectrophotometry  Ultraviolet (UV)  Visible  Infrared (IR)  Mass spectrometry

9. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 8 Presumptive Color Tests  Marquis—turns purple in the presence of most opium derivatives and orange-brown with amphetamines  Dillie-Koppanyi—turns violet-blue in the presence of barbiturates  Duquenois-Levine—turns a purple color in the presence of marijuana  Van Urk—turns a blue-purple in the presence of LSD  Scott test—color test for cocaine, blue

10. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 9 Chromatography  A technique for separating mixtures into their components  Includes two phases—a mobile one that flows past a stationary one.  The mixture interacts with the stationary phase and separates.

11. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 10 Paper Chromatography  Stationary phase—paper  Mobile phase—a liquid solvent Capillary action moves the mobile phase through the stationary phase

12. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 11 Spectroscopy  Spectroscopy—the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.  Spectrophotometer—an instrument used to measure and record the absorption spectrum of a chemical substance.

13. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 12 Spectrophotometry Components  A radiation source  A frequency selector  A sample holder  A detector to convert electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal  A recorder to produce a record of the signal Types  Ultraviolet  Visible  Infrared

14. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 13 Infrared Spectometry  Material absorbs energy in the near-IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Compares the IR light beam before and after passing through a transparent sample.  Result—an absorption or transmittance spectrum  Gives a unique view of the substance; like a fingerprint

15. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 14 Mass Spectrometry Gas chromatography has one major drawback, it does not give a specific identification. Mass spectrometry cannot separate mixtures. By combining the two (GCMS), constituents of mixtures can be specifically identified.

16. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 15 Mass Spectrometry In a mass spectrometer, an electron beam is directed at sample molecules in a vacuum chamber. The electrons break apart the sample molecules into many positive charged fragments. These are sorted and collected according to their mass-to-charge ratio by an oscillating electric or a magnetic field.

17. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 16 Mass Spectra Each molecular species has its own unique mass spectrum.

18. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 17 IR Spectrophotometry and Mass Spectrometry  Both work well in identifying pure substances.  Mixtures are difficult to identify in both techniques  Both are compared to a catalog of knowns

19. Chapter 8 Toxicology: Poisons and Alcohol “All substances are poisons. There is none which is not. The right dose differentiates a poison and remedy.” —Paracelsus (1495-1541). Swiss physician and chemist —Jhn Trestrail from “Criminal Poisoning”

20. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 19 Toxicology Definition—the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or physical agents on living organisms. Types:  Environmental—air, water, soil  Consumer—foods, cosmetics, drugs  Medical, clinical, forensic

21. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 20 Forensic Toxicology  Postmortem—medical examiner or coroner  Criminal—motor vehicle accidents (MVA)  Workplace—drug testing  Sports—human and animal  Environment—industrial, catastrophic, terrorism

22. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 21 Toxicology Toxic substances may:  Be a cause of death  Contribute to death  Cause impairment  Explain behavior

23. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 22 The Severity of the Problem “If all those buried in our cemeteries who were poisoned could raise their hands, we would probably be shocked by the numbers.” —John Harris Trestrail, “Criminal Poisoning”

24. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 23 Aspects of Toxicity  Dosage  The chemical or physical form of the substance  The mode of entry into the body  Body weight and physiological conditions of the victim, including age and sex  The time period of exposure  The presence of other chemicals in the body or in the dose

25. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 24 Lethal Dose  LD 50 —refers to the dose of a substance that kills half the test population, usually within four hours  Expressed in milligrams of substance per kilogram of body weight

26. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 25 Toxicity Classes LD 50 (rat,oral) Correlation to Ingestion by 150 lb Adult Human Toxicity <1mg/kga taste to a dropextremely 1-50 mg/kgto a teaspoonhighly 50-500 mg/kgto an ouncemoderately 500-5000 mg/kgto a pintslightly 5-15 g/kgto a quartpractically non-toxic Over 15g/kgmore than 1 quartrelatively harmless

27. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 26 Federal Regulatory Agencies  Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)  Consumer Product Safety Commission  Department of Transportation (DOT)  Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

28. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 27 Symptoms of Various Types of Poisoning Type of PoisonSymptom/Evidence  Caustic Poison (lye)Characteristic burns around the lips and mouth of the victim  Carbon MonoxideRed or pink patches on the chest and thighs, unusually bright red lividity  Sulfuric acidBlack vomit  Hydrochloric acidGreenish-brown vomit  Nitric acidYellow vomit  PhosphorousCoffee brown vomit. Onion or garlic odor  CyanideBurnt almond odor  Arsenic, MercuryPronounced diarrhea  Methyl (wood) orNausea and vomiting, unconsciousness, Isopropyl (rubbing) alcoholpossibly blindness

29. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 28 Critical Information on Poisons  Form  Common color  Characteristic odor  Solubility  Taste  Common sources  Lethal dose  Mechanism  Possible methods of administration  Time interval of onset of symptoms.  Symptoms resulting from an acute exposure  Symptoms resulting from chronic exposure  Disease states mimicked by poisoning  Notes relating to the victim  Specimens from victim  Analytical detection methods  Known toxic levels  Notes pertinent to analysis of poison  List of cases in which poison was used

30. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 29 To Prove a Case  Prove a crime was committed  Motive  Intent  Access to poison  Access to victim  Death was caused by poison  Death was homicidal

31. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 30 Forensic Autopsy Look for :  Irritated tissues  Characteristic odors  Mees lines—single transverse white bands on nails. Order toxicological screens  Postmortem concentrations should be done at the scene for comparison  No realistic calculation of dose can be made from a single measurement

32. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 31 Human Specimens for Analysis  Blood  Urine  Vitreous Humor of Eyes  Bile  Gastric contents  Liver tissue  Brain tissue  Kidney tissue  Hair/nails

33. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 32 Alcohol— Ethyl Alcohol (C 2 H 5 OH)  Most abused drug in America  About 40% of all traffic deaths are alcohol-related  Toxic—affecting the central nervous system, especially the brain  Colorless liquid, generally diluted in water  Acts as a depressant  Alcohol appears in blood within minutes of consumption; 30-90 minutes for full absorption  Detoxification—about 90% in the liver  About 5% is excreted unchanged in breath, perspiration and urine

34. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 33 Rate of Absorption Depends on:  amount of alcohol consumed  the alcohol content of the beverage  time taken to consume it  quantity and type of food present in the stomach  physiology of the consumer

35. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 34 BAC Blood Alcohol Content  Expressed as percent weight per volume of blood  Legal limits in all states is 0.08%  Parameters influencing BAC:  Body weight  Alcoholic content  Number of beverages consumed  Time between consumption

36. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 35 BAC  Burn off rate of 0.015% per hour but can vary:  Male BAC male = 0.071 x (oz) x (% alcohol) body weight  Female BAC female = 0.085 x (oz) x (% alcohol) body weight

37. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 36 Henry’s Law  The concentration of alcohol in breath is proportional to that in the blood.  This ratio of alcohol in the blood to the alcohol in the lungs is approximately 2100 to 1. In other words 1 ml of blood will contain nearly the same amount of alcohol as 2100 ml of breath.

38. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 37 Field Tests  Preliminary tests—used to determine the degree of suspect’s physical impairment and whether or not another test is justified.  Psychophysical tests—3 Basic Tests  Horizontal gaze nystagmus (HGN): follow a pen or small flashlight, tracking left to right with one’s eyes. In general, wavering at 45 degrees indicates 0.10 BAC.  Nine Step walk and turn (WAT): comprehend and execute two or more simple instructions at one time.  One-leg stand (OLS): maintain balance, comprehend and execute two or more simple instructions at one time.

39. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 38 The Breathalyzer  More practical in the field  Collects and measures alcohol content of alveolar breath  Breath sample mixes with 3 ml of 0.025 % K 2 Cr 2 O 7 in sulfuric acid and water 2K 2 Cr 2 O 7 + 3C 2 H 5 OH + 8H 2 SO 4  2Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 2K 2 SO 4 + 3CH 3 COOH + 11 H 2 O  Potassium dichromate is yellow, as concentration decreases its light absorption diminishes so the breathalyzer indirectly measures alcohol concentration by measuring light absorption of potassium dichromate before and after the reaction with alcohol

40. Chapter 8 Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 39 Generalizations  During absorption, the concentration of alcohol in arterial blood will be higher than in venous blood.  Breath tests reflect alcohol concentration in the pulmonary artery.  The breathalyzer also can react with acetone (as found with diabetics), acetaldehyde, methanol, isopropyl alcohol, and paraldehyde, but these are toxic and their presence means the person is in serious medical condition.  Breathalyzers now use an infrared light absorption device with a digital read-out. Prints out a card for a permanent record.