1. Organic Chemistry How carbon based molecules form the basis of life

2. Although cells are 70-95% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds. Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and lipids are the main carbon based molecules found in living organisms. –These other elements commonly include hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P). Introduction Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. The study of carbon compounds, organic chemistry, focuses on any compound with carbon (organic compounds). –Organic compounds can range from the simple (CO 2 or CH 4 ) to complex molecules, like proteins. Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules. –The skeletons may vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings. Structure=function discussion Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4. Fig. 4.4

5. Three of the four classes of macromolecules form chainlike molecules called polymers. –Polymers consist of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. The repeated units are small molecules called monomers. Organic molecules Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

6. The chemical mechanisms that cells use to make and break polymers are similar for all classes of macromolecules. Monomers are connected by covalent bonds via a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis. –This process requires energy and is aided by enzymes. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.2a

7. The covalent bonds connecting monomers in a polymer are disassembled by hydrolysis. –Hydrolysis reactions dominate the digestive process, guided by specific enzymes. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.2b

8. Functional Groups

9. Functional Groups cont.

10. Basic Review Questions Compare and contrast hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis. Define the terms monomer and polymer. Write an analogy to help you remember the terms.

11. Carbohydrates are sugars that serve as fuel and main carbon source. The simplest carbohydrates (monomers) are monosaccharides or simple sugars. Disaccharides, double sugars, consist of two monosaccharides joined by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Introduction to Carbohydrates Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

12. Monosaccharides generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of CH 2 O. –For example, glucose has the formula C 6 H 12 O 6. –Most names for sugars end in -ose. Two monosaccharides can join to form a dissaccharide via dehydration synthesis. –Sucrose, table sugar, is formed by joining glucose and fructose and is the major transport form of sugars in plants. –Lactose, sugar found in milk, is a disaccharide made from galactose and glucose. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.5a

13. Starch is a storage polysaccharide composed entirely of glucose monomers. –Most monomers are joined by 1-4 linkages between the glucose molecules. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.6a

14. Animals also store glucose in a polysaccharide called glycogen. Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen in the liver and muscles but only have about a one day supply. Related to diabetes Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.6b

15. Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells. –Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose monomers. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.7c In a human, the enzymes that digest starch cannot hydrolyze the bonds in cellulose. –Cellulose in our food passes through the digestive tract and is eliminated in feces as “insoluble fiber”.

16. Carb Review Questions Explain the role of carbohydrates for living things. If I gave you a list of chemical names, how would you be able to identify the carbohydrates? What types of bonds hold polymers of carbohydrates together?

17. Lipids (fats) are an exception among macromolecules because they do not have polymers. The unifying feature of lipids is that they all have little or no affinity for water (hydrophobic). A fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules, glycerol and fatty acids. The major function of fats is energy storage. –A gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide. Introduction to Lipids Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

18. Building Blocks of Lipids Glycerol consists of a three carbon skeleton with a hydroxyl group attached to each. A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton, often 16 to 18 carbons long. Fig. 5.10a

19. In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol, creating a triacylglycerol. Triglycerides are found in some of the foods we eat, and are a rich energy source, although can be linked to heart disease. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.10b

20. The three fatty acids in a fat can be the same or different. Fatty acids may vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds. –If there are no carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule is a saturated fatty acid - a hydrogen at every possible position. –Food: solid at room temp. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.11a

21. –If there are one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule is an unsaturated fatty acid. –Saturated fatty acids are straight chains, but unsaturated fatty acids have a kink wherever there is a double bond. –Food: tend to be liquid at room temp –The kinks provided by the double bonds prevent the molecules from packing tightly together. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.11b

22. Phospholipids have two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a phosphate group at the third position. –The phosphate at the head makes it hydrophilic –Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.12

23. At the surface of a cell phospholipids are arranged as a bilayer. –Again, the hydrophilic heads are on the outside in contact with the aqueous solution and the hydrophobic tails from the core. –The phospholipid bilayer forms a barrier between the cell and the external environment. They are the major component of membranes. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.12b

24. Steroids are lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused carbon rings. –Different steroids are created by varying functional groups attached to the rings. –Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.14

25. Lipid Review Questions Please list at least three jobs that lipids play in living organisms. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fats. Be able to give an example of each. Compare and contrast the amount of energy stored in a lipid versus a carbohydrate. Explain why this might be the case.

26. Proteins are instrumental in about everything that an organism does. –These functions include structural support, storage, transport of other substances, intercellular signaling, movement, and defense against foreign substances. –Proteins are the enzymes in a cell, speeding up chemical reactions. Proteins are the most structurally complex molecules known. –Each type of protein has a complex three- dimensional shape or conformation. Introduction to Proteins Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

27. Amino acids consist of four components attached to a central carbon. These components include a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group (or side chain). –Differences in R groups produce the 20 different amino acids. Amino acid=monomer of a protein Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

28. One group of amino acids has hydrophobic R groups. Fig. 5.15a

29. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Another group of amino acids has polar R groups, making them hydrophilic. Fig. 5.15b

30. The last group of amino acids includes those with functional groups that are charged (ionized) at cellular pH. –Some R groups are bases, others are acids. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.15c

31. Amino acids are joined together when a dehydration reaction removes a hydroxyl group from the carboxyl end of one amino acid and a hydrogen from the amino group of another. –The resulting covalent bond is called a peptide bond. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.16

32. All protein polymers are constructed from the same set of 20 monomers, called amino acids. Polymers of proteins are called polypeptides. A protein consists of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific conformation. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

33. A functional proteins consists of one or more polypeptides that have been precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape. It is the order of amino acids that determines what the three-dimensional conformation will be. A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.17

34. Levels of Organization Three levels of structure: primary, secondary, and tertiary structure, are used to organize the folding within a single polypeptide. Quarternary structure arises when two or more polypeptides join to form a protein. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

35. The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids. –The precise primary structure of a protein is determined by inherited genetic information. –Central dogma: DNA --> RNA --> Protein Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.18

36. Fig. 5.19 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Even a slight change in primary structure can affect a protein’s conformation and ability to function. In individuals with sickle cell disease, abnormal hemoglobins, oxygen-carrying proteins, develop because of a single amino acid substitution.

37. The secondary structure of a protein results from hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone. –Typical shapes that develop from secondary structure are coils (an alpha helix) or folds (beta pleated sheets). Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.20

38. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Tertiary structure is determined by a variety of interactions among R groups and between R groups and the polypeptide backbone. Fig. 5.22

39. Quarternary structure results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits. –Hemoglobin is a globular protein with two copies of two kinds of polypeptides. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.23

40. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.24

41. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.25

42. Protein Review Questions What are the monomers of a protein called? How many different monomers are there? What types of bonds hold the primary structure of a protein together? What types of bonds hold the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of a protein together? Please explain at least two roles of proteins in living things.

43. The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a gene. A gene consists of regions of DNA, a polymer of nucleic acids. DNA (and their genes) is passed by the mechanisms of inheritance. Organisms inherit DNA from their parents. Introduction to Nucleic Acids Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

44. There are two types of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA provides direction for its own replication. DNA also directs RNA synthesis and, through RNA, controls protein synthesis. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

45. The flow of genetic information is from DNA -> RNA -> protein (central dogma). –Protein synthesis occurs in cellular structures called ribosomes. –In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the nucleus, but most ribosomes are in the cytoplasm with mRNA as an intermediary. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 5.28

46. Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: 1.a nitrogen base 2.a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) 3.a phosphate group. –Polynucleotides are synthesized by connecting the sugars of one nucleotide to the phosphate of the next with a phosphodiester bond. A nucleic acid strand is a polymer of nucleotides Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

47. Fig. 5.29

48. RNA structure: DNA Structure: Single Strand Double Helix

49. Nucleic Acid Review Questions What are the monomers of nucleic acids called? What are the three things the monomers are composed of? Please explain the central dogma of inheritance. Compare and contrast the structures of DNA and RNA.