3. History

4. Streptococcus pneumonia galur : Experimen dg Streptococcus pneumonia galur : Smooth (S) – Virulent (gel coat) Smooth (S) – Virulent (gel coat) Rough (R) –Kurang Virulen Rough (R) – Kurang Virulen Streptococcus pneumonia galur : Experimen dg Streptococcus pneumonia galur : Smooth (S) – Virulent (gel coat) Smooth (S) – Virulent (gel coat) Rough (R) –Kurang Virulen Rough (R) – Kurang Virulen R strain could become virulent when it took in DNA from heat-killed S strain

6. Structure

7. DNA Nucleotide O=P-O OPhosphate Group Group N Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T) (A, G, C, or T) CH2 O C1C1 C4C4 C3C3 C2C2 5 Sugar Sugar(deoxyribose) O

8. Deoksi adenosin monofosfat Deoksi guanosin monofosfat

9. Deoksi timidin monofosfat Deoksi sitidin monofosfat

12. Melting and Renaturation of DNA Renaturation driven by homologous base pairing Will also hybridize with a radiolabeled 5’-ACGGCTA-3’ “probe”.

13. O O UreaFormamid NH2  C  NH2 NH2  C  H Senyawa yang menstabilkan kondisi terdenaturasi

14. Replication

15.  Process of duplication of the entire genome prior to cell division  In eukaryotes, replication only occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.

16. Synthesis Phase (S phase) S phase during interphase of the cell cycle Nucleus of eukaryotes Mitosis -prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase G1G1 G2G2 S phase interphase DNA replication takes place in the S phase.

17. DNA replication occurs with great fidelity (New cells will need identical DNA strands)) Somatic cell DNA stability and reproductive-cell DNA stability are essential. Why? Pan troglodytes 98.77% sequence identity Identity Genetic diseases

18.  A.Semi-conservative B.Starts at the ‘origin’ C.Bidirectional D.Semi-discontinuous E.Synthesis always in the 5-3’ direction F.RNA primers required Basic rules of replication

19.  DNA replication Of the 3 possible models, replication is… A) Semi- conservative Meselson-Stahl experiments

20. B) Starts at origin Initiator proteins identify specific base sequences on DNA called sites of origin Prokaryotes – single origin site E.g E.coli - oriC Eukaryotes – multiple sites of origin (replicator) E.g. yeast - ARS (autonomously replicating sequences) Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

21. Bidirectional replication of circular DNA molecules.

22. Temporal ordering of DNA replication initiation events in replication units of eukaryotic chromosomes.

23.  C) bidirectional Replication forks move in one or opposite directions

24.  Anti parallel strands replicated simultaneously  Leading strand synthesis continuously in 5’– 3’  Lagging strand synthesis in fragments in 5’-3’ D) Semi-discontinuous replication

25. E) Synthesis is ALWAYS in the 5’-3’ direction Nucleotide recognition Enzyme catalysed polymerisation (DNA polymerase) Complementary base pair copied Substrate used is dNTP

26.  F) RNA primers required DNA polymerase can only join an incoming nucleotide to one that is base-paired RNA primase provides a base paired 3’ end as a starting point for DNA pol by synthesising ~10 nucleotide primers

27. Animasi replikasi

28. SSB (ssDNA binding protein) Binds to and stabilizes ssDNA exonuclease 3’-5’ exonuclease 5’-3’

29. Where does energy for addition of nucleotide come from? What happens if a base mismatch occurs? DNA polymerase has 3’  5’ exonuclease activity in order to correct errors From cleavage of high energy phosphate of incoming triphosphate

30. Why does DNA replication only occur in the 5’ to 3’ direction?

31. DNase I DNase II Exonuclease

32. Since all known DNA polymerases need a primer, how are the ends of linear DNA replicated in eukaryotes? 5' 3' RNA primer template newly synthesized DNA Replication of the ends of linear DNA

33. repetitive DNA at the end of linear eukaryotic chromosomes Telomeres (GGGGTT) n Example n = 20 - 200 GGGGTT 5'

34. Telomerases : enzymes that add DNA repeats to the 3' end of DNA. Telomerases are composed of protein and an RNA molecule that functions as the template for telomere synthesis. AACCCCAAC telomerase

35. Human telomerase  Responsible for maintaining telomere length in eukaryotic chromosomes  Main components:  Telomerase reverse transcriptase  Human telomerase RNA (hTR)  Reverse transcriptase  Transcribes RNA to DNA (rather than the usual DNA to RNA)  hTR is the template for the repeated region

36. AACCCCAAC 5' GGGGTT 5' telomerase

37. AACCCCAAC 5' GGGGTT primase GGGGTT

38. pol III pol I 5' ligase telomeric repeats

39. For most cells, telomeres are added during development. Later telomerase becomes inactive. Hence, as cells divide the DNA becomes shorter. Note that telomerase is reactivated in many types of cancer cells.

40. OBAT anti REPLIKASI DNA

41. INHIBITOR TOPOISOMERASE (Gyrase) Antibiotik QUINOLON : MENGHAMBAT TOPOISOMERASE BAKTERI GRAM NEGATIF, MODIFIKASI BAKTERI GRAM POSITIF DAN AEROBIK Camptothecin : INHIBITOR TOPOISOMERASE I SEBAGAI ANTI KANKER DENGAN MENSTABILKAN BENTUK ENZIM TERIKAT PADA DNA SECARA KOVALEN

42. TOPOISOMERASE SBG TARGET OBAT  Novobiocin – subunit ATPase GyrB  Asam naladiksat – Gyr A  Ciprofloxacin (oral) – stop replikasi MENGGANGU PROSES PEMOTONGAN DAN PENYAMBUNGAN UNTAI DNA