1. Labour market segregation between men and women What to measure How to measure it

2. ILO Bureau of Statistics 2 Contents A definition Causes Types Indicators Data needs

3. ILO Bureau of Statistics 3 A definition Labour market segregation in general: Practice of restricting particular population group(s) to certain (economic/non-economic) activities in order to maintain the economic advantages and higher social status of the other population group(s) Types of labour market segregation: –SEX –Race, ethnicity –Religion –Migrants/non-migrants

4. ILO Bureau of Statistics 4 Causes De jure - enforced by law –Laws forbidding/hindering women from working or from doing certain jobs De facto – widespread individual preferences, social customs –Traditional female roles of family caretakers impede/encumber that they work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work, on an equal footing as men –Subordination to men means that women are not free to work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work without approval of husband/father/brother –Social and educational conditioning that hinder competitiveness to allow women to work on an equal footing as men

5. ILO Bureau of Statistics 5 Types of segregation In the entry to/exit from the labour market In the types of economic activities carried out In their labour inputs In their returns to labour

6. ILO Bureau of Statistics 6 Entry/exit Do they work ? Employment Do they look for work? Unemployment Do they work or look for work? Labour force Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour turnover, life cycle patterns

7. ILO Bureau of Statistics 7 Types of activities The type of work they do - occupations The type of establishment they work in - industries The type of contract - status in employment The type of employer - institutional sector The size of establishment where they work Where they work - place of work Hazardousness of their work – occupational injuries and disease Their voice – union density and representation Social security coverage

8. ILO Bureau of Statistics 8 Labour inputs How much do they work - hours actually worked/usually worked, overtime, part-time/full-time How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night work, shift work, weekend work How often are they absent from work and for what reasons – family reasons, economic reasons, social reasons

9. ILO Bureau of Statistics 9 Returns to labour Income from employment –Basic wages –Overtime payments –Fringe benefits –Social security benefits –Regular and irregular payments

10. ILO Bureau of Statistics 10 Indicators Types of indicators Indicators to measure segregation in: –The entry to/exit from the labour marketThe entry to/exit from the labour market –The types of economic activities carried outThe types of economic activities carried out –Labour inputsLabour inputs –Returns to labourReturns to labour

11. ILO Bureau of Statistics 11 Types of indicators Measures of relationship –Ratios : relation between two quantities (a/b) –Proportions, percentages : quotient between one part and the total (a/(a+b)) –Index numbersIndex numbers Measures of central tendency –Mean, median, mode Measures of variability –Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation Shape of the distribution –Skewness, kurtosis

12. ILO Bureau of Statistics 12 Index numbers Value in relation to a standard value (often =100) When are index numbers used –Summarize large quantities of qualitative information ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F | –Indicate variations in time Wage index = (W t – W (t-1) )/W (t-1) Types –Simple index number Gender pay gap = W m -W f –Weighted index number Laspeyres price index = ∑ P i1 Q i0 / ∑ P i0 Q i0

13. ILO Bureau of Statistics 13 Indicators to measure entry/exit Activity rate –Gross: Labour force/total population * 100 –Net: Labour force/working age population * 100 Employment rate –Employed persons/working age population * 100 Unemployment rate –Unemployed persons/Labour force * 100

14. ILO Bureau of Statistics 14 Indicators to measure activities carried out Share of women in category i Women in category i/total workers in category i * 100 = Fi/Ni * 100 Percentage of all women in category I Women in category i/all women * 100 = Fi/F * 100 Sex ratio (in category i) Women in category i/Men in category i * 100 = Wi/Mi * 100 Dissimilarity index (ID) ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |

15. ILO Bureau of Statistics 15 Indicators to measure labour inputs Distribution of workers by hours worked per week Percentage women/men who work less/more than x hours per week Distribution of workers by working time arrangements

16. ILO Bureau of Statistics 16 Indicators to measure returns to labour Gender wage gap (Wm – Wf)/Wm * 100 Gender wage gap corrected for differences in occupations/industries 1/N ∑Ni * (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi Average wage 1/N ∑ Wi Median wage - wage below and above which half of the population is found Distribution of workers by categories of income earned

17. ILO Bureau of Statistics 17 Data needs Complete worker coverage Sufficient detail Explanatory variables

18. ILO Bureau of Statistics 18 Complete worker coverage Coverage because of the SNA-93 definition of work Coverage in labour statistics concepts Coverage because of use of short or long reference periods –Seasonal/casual activities

19. ILO Bureau of Statistics 19 Definition of work, SNA-93 Activities that produce goods (for the market or for free) Activities that produce services for the market or that are carried out for payment Activities that produce unpaid services for the consumption of own/another household Productive activities Economic activities Non-economic activities

20. ILO Bureau of Statistics 20 Treatment of non-market activities, SNA-93 Included (if the amount of that good is quantitatively important in relation to the total supply of that good in a country) Excluded Growing or gathering field crops, fruits and vegetables Producing eggs, milk and food Hunting animals and birds Catching fish, crabs and shellfish Cutting firewood and building poles Collecting thatching and weaving materials Burning charcoal Mining slat Cutting peat Carrying water Threshing and milling grain Making butter, ghee and cheese Slaughtering livestock Curing hides and skins Preserving meat and fish Making beer, wine and spirits Crushing oil seeds Weaving baskets and mats Making clay pots and plates Weaving textiles Making furniture Dressmaking and tailoring Handicrafts made from non- primary products Constructing dwellings Constructing farm buildings Building boats and canoes Clearing land for cultivation Cleaning, decorating and maintaining dwelling, including small repair Cleaning, repairing household durables, vehicles or other goods Preparing and serving meals Caring for, training and instructing children Caring for the sick, invalid or old people Transporting household members or their goods Source: Based on System of National Accounts, 1993.

21. ILO Bureau of Statistics 21 Coverage in concepts Employment Unemployment Informal sector Income Industrial disputes

22. ILO Bureau of Statistics 22 Coverage in employment Persons at work for at least one hour –Persons who work a few hours and whose social role is to be a housewife, student or retired –The self employed –Unpaid family workers –Armed forces –Unpaid workers Persons not at work –Extended absences

23. ILO Bureau of Statistics 23 Coverage in unemployment Actively seeking work –Willingness to wrok Being available to work –Any work –Only at home

24. ILO Bureau of Statistics 24 Coverage in informal sector Sectors often excluded: –Agriculture –Domestic work –Outwork/homework –Work for the benefit of own household Main and secondary jobs Workers without fixed work location

25. ILO Bureau of Statistics 25 Coverage in income Components of income: –Basic wages –Bonuses –Payments in kind and services –Social security benefits Family-related payments

26. ILO Bureau of Statistics 26 Coverage in industrial disputes Legal or official disputes Minimum duration of disputes Workers directly and indirectly involved

27. ILO Bureau of Statistics 27 Sufficient detail The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender differences –ExamplesExamples Sample size may not always allow the detail required –In household surveys –In establishment surveys

28. ILO Bureau of Statistics 28 Examples of sufficient detail Occupations –Professionals by type: doctors vs nurses, physicists vs teachers –Managers in small vs large firms –Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing Status in employment –Regular vs. casual employees –Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers Income –Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social security contributions Hours of work –Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work

29. ILO Bureau of Statistics 29 Explanatory variables All these indicators should be calculated not only by sex, but by: –Levels of education –Age groups –Family context Marital status Presence and number of preschool children Presence of elderly persons requiring care Therefore, statistics should be readily disaggregated by these variables

30. stat/ilo.org www.ilo.org/stat http://laborsta.ilo.org