1. Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research
Chapters 1 & 2

2. A Look Ahead How did sociology develop?
How does it differ from other social sciences?
Who are the pioneers and what are their theoretical perspectives?
How does sociology help us develop a sociological imagination?

3. What is Sociology?
Sociology: Scientific study of social behavior and human groups
Focus on:
How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior
How societies develop and change

4. Sociological Perspective
Special vision
Seeing the general in the particular
Seeing the strange in the familiar
Seeing individuality in social context

5. Benefits of the Sociological Perspective
Question “common sense”
Assess opportunities and constraints
Empowerment
Living in a diverse world

6. The Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills’ sociological imagination:
An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society
Ability to view society as an outsider would

7. Sociology and the Social Sciences
Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior
Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society
Examine social relationships scientifically

8. Sociology and the Social Sciences
Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation
Natural science: Study of physical features of nature and the ways they interact and change
Social science: Study of social features of humans and the ways they interact and change

9. Sociology and Common Sense
Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it”
Each piece of information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed

10. Key concepts in Sociology
Skepticism
Uncovering “inconvenient facts”- Weber
Method of organizing perspectives
Objectivity
Ethics
Critical thinking

11. The Development of Sociology
Industrial Revolution
Growth of cities
Pull of factories
Push of enclosure
Political Change
Pursuit of self-interest

12. Early Thinkers Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)
Systematic investigation of behavior
Coined term “sociology”
Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)
Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S.
Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
Studied “evolutionary” change in society

13. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Behavior must be understood within larger social context
Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective

14. Max Weber (1864–1920)
To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions
Verstehen: understanding; insight
Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases

15. Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests
The Communist Manifesto
Working class should overthrow existing class system
Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

16. Modern Developments W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)
Black sociologists assisted struggle for racially egalitarian society
Knowledge essential in combating prejudice
Double consciousness: Division of individual’s identity into two or more social realities

17. Twentieth-Century Developments
Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)
Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups
Jane Addams (1860–1935)
Combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism
Co-founded Hull House

18. Modern Developments Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)
Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next
Cultural capital: noneconomic goods reflected in knowledge of language and arts
Social capital: collective benefit of social networks

19. Why Theory? Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem
3 sociological theoretical paradigms
Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research

20. Functionalist Perspective
Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability
Views society as vast network of connected parts
Each helps maintain the system as a whole

21. Functionalist Perspective
Manifest functions: Open, stated, conscious functions; intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society
Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions; may reflect hidden purposes
Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability

22. Conflict Perspective
Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups
Conflict theorists interested in how institutions may help maintain privileges of some groups and keep others subservient

23. Conflict Perspective The Feminist view
Sees inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization
Often allied with conflict theory
Broadened social behavior by extending analysis beyond male point of view

24. Interactionist Perspective
Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole
Humans viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects
Nonverbal communication: Includes gestures, facial expressions, and postures

25. What is the Scientific Method?
Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating the hypothesis
Selecting the research design and collecting and analyzing data
Developing the conclusion

26. Scientific Method Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature
Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept
Reviewing the Literature
Refines problem under study

27. Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis
Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables
Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions
Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable

28. Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)
Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other
Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another
Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

29. Figure 2-3: Causal Logic – page 3629

30. Major Research Designs
Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
Surveys
Observation
Experiments
Existing sources

31. Surveys
Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think
Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning
Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

32. Ethnography
Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community
Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation
Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

33. Surveys
Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

34. Experiments
Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables
Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable
Control group: Not exposed to independent variable
Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

35. Use of Existing Sources
Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

36. Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data Selecting the Sample
Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population
Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected
Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

37. Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied
Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

38. Scientific Method Developing the Conclusion Supporting the Hypothesis
Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis
Controlling for other factors
Control variable: factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

39. Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method – page 3339

40. Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100
Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values
Mode: Single most common value in a series of values
Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

41. Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States – page 35
Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233. 41

42. Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income – page 37
Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03. 42

43. Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support