1. Chemical Reactions

2. General Reactions Combination Rxns: 2 or more substances react to form a single product 2 H 2 + O 2  2 H 2 O

4. Decomposition Rxns: single substance decomposes into 2 or more products opposite of combination rxns 2 H 2 O  2 H 2 + O 2

6. Single Replacement/Displacement: one element reacts with a compound to form a new compound and release a new element 2 Na + 2 H 2 O  2 NaOH + H 2

8. Double Replacement/Displacement: an interchange of partners between two compounds Also called “ Exchange Reactions ” Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) + KI (aq)  PbI 2 (s) + 2 KNO 3 (aq)

10. Combustion Rxns: the burning of a compound, usually a hydrocarbon, in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

11. Redox Reaction A reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons from one reactant to another

12. + 

13. Rules for Assigning Oxidation States 1)Free elements have an oxidation state = 0 Na = 0 and Cl 2 = 0 in 2 Na(s) + Cl 2 (g) 2)Monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal to their charge Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl 3)Fluorine is always –1 in compounds with other elements 4)Cl, Br, and I are always –1 in compounds except when combined with O or F. Cl = -1 in NaCl Cl = +1 in ClO -

14. Rules for Assigning Oxidation States 5)The oxidation # of H is +1 in most compounds except when forming a binary compound with a metal H = +1 in HCl H = -1 in NaH 6)The oxidation # of O is –2 in most compounds except when forming a peroxide O = -2 in H 2 O O = -1 in H 2 O 2

15. 7)The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a compound is 0 Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl, (+1) + (-1) = 0 8)The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion N = +5 and O = -2 in NO 3 –, (+5) + 3(-2) = -1

16. Practice – Assign an Oxidation State to Each Element in the following Br 2 MgBr 2 KBr LiF CO 2 CO SO 4 2- Na 2 O 2

17. Oxidation and Reduction OIL RIG oxidation occurs when an atom ’ s oxidation state increases during a reaction reduction occurs when an atom ’ s oxidation state decreases during a reaction CH 4 + 2 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 H 2 O -4 +1 0 +4 –2 +1 -2 oxidation reduction

18. Oxidation–Reduction oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously – if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them the reactant that reduces an element in another reactant is called the reducing agent – the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized the reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant is called the oxidizing agent – the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced 2 Na(s) + Cl 2 (g) → 2 NaCl(s)

19. Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents in Each of the Following 1)Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 2 Al(s)  2 Fe(s) + Al 2 O 3 (s) 2)MnO 2 + 4 HBr   MnBr 2 + Br 2 + 2 H 2 O 3)3 H 2 S + 2 NO 3 – + 2 H +   S + 2 NO + 4 H 2 O 4)MnO 4 - (aq) + Fe 2+ (aq)  Mn 2+ + Fe 3+ (aq)

20. 20 Common Oxidizing Agents Oxidizing AgentProduct When Reduced O2O2 O 2- O3O3 O2O2 F 2, Cl 2, Br 2, I 2 F -, Cl -, Br -, I - ClO 3 -, BrO 3 -, IO 3 - Cl -, Br -, I - ClO - Cl - HNO 3 NO, NO 2 Hexavalent Chromium CrO 3 CrO 4 2- Cr 2 O 7 2- Cr 3+, H 2 O MnO 4 - MnO 4 2- Mn 2+ (acidic), MnO 2 (basic) H2O2H2O2 H2OH2O H 2 SO 4 SO 2 or S or H 2 S

21. 21 Common Reducing Agents Reducing AgentProduct When Oxidized H2H2 H+H+ H2O2H2O2 O2O2 I-I- I2I2 NH 3, N 2 H 4 N2N2 S 2-, H 2 SS SO 3 2- SO 4 2- NO 2 - NO 3 - C (as coke or charcoal)CO or CO 2 Fe 2+ Fe 3+ Cr 2+ Cr 3+ Sn 2+ Sn 4+ MetalsMetal Ions

22. Collision Theory For a reaction to occur, there must be: 1)Collision 2)Orientation 3)Energy

27. Reaction Rates Rate: change in the quantity of something over a given period of time Rate of rxn =

28. Questions 1)What is your speed, in mph, if you travel 12 km in 10 minutes? 2)Which reaction, in the above diagram, is faster? at t = 0 [A] = 8 [B] = 8 [C] = 0 at t = 16 [A] = 4 [B] = 4 [C] = 4 at t = 0 [X] = 8 [Y] = 8 [Z] = 0 at t = 16 [X] = 7 [Y] = 7 [Z] = 1

29. 3)Calculate the rates of rxn from t=16 to t=32 and from t=32 to t=48 4)Using the rates of rxn from problems 2 and 3, what can you conclude about the rate of a rxn as the rxn proceeds? Why does this happen? at t = 16 [A] = 4 [B] = 4 [C] = 4 at t = 32 [A] = 2 [B] = 2 [C] = 6 at t = 48 [A] = 0 [B] = 0 [C] = 8

30. Factors Influencing the Speed of Reactions Nature of reactants Temperature Concentration Catalysts

31. 1)Nature of Reactants: what kind of reactant molecules and what physical condition they are in small molecules tend to react faster than large molecules gases tend to react faster than liquids which react faster than solids powdered solids are more reactive than “ blocks ” ions tend react faster than molecules

32. 2)Temperature Increase temp = Increase rxn rate Decrease temp = Decrease rxn rate

33. 3) Reactant Concentration Increase [reactants] = Increase rxn rate Decrease [reactants] = Decrease rxn rate

34. 4)Catalysts: substances that affect the speed of a reaction without being consumed themselves Provide an alternative pathway that has a lower activation energy (E a )

35. Ozone Depletion over the Antarctic mechanism without catalyst O 3(g) + O (g)  2 O 2(g) V. Slow mechanism with catalyst Cl (g) + O 3(g)  O 2(g) + ClO (g) Fast ClO (g) + O (g)  O 2(g) + Cl (g) Slow

36. Energy Profile of Catalyzed Reaction Polar stratospheric clouds contain ice crystals that catalyze reactions that release Cl from atmospheric chemicals

37. Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sucrose

38. Chemical Equilibrium H 2 (g) + I 2 (g)  2 HI (g) H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) 2 HI (g) Equilibrium: a condition in which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction – Concentrations of reactants and products are constant, but not necessarily equal

42. The Equilibrium Constant Expression K = equilibrium constant For aA + bBcC + dD @ equilib.

43. Questions Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reactions: 1)H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) 2 HI (g) 2)CH 3 OH (g) CO(g) + 2 H 2 (g) 3)N 2 (g) + H 2 (g)NH 3 (g)

44. The Meaning of K When K >> 1 – Rxn is product favored – [P] ’ s higher than [R] ’ s @ equilibrium K = 1.9 x 10 19 @ 25 °C

45. When K << 1 – Rxn is reactant favored – [R] ’ s is higher than [P] ’ s @ equilibrium K = 4.1 x 10 -31 @ 25 °C

46. When K ≈ 1 – Neither direction is favored – Rxn proceeds about ½ way – Calculations must be done to figure out whether the [R] ’ s or the [P] ’ s is higher

48. Questions 1)Is the following reaction reactant favored or product favored? Cd(NH 3 ) 4 2+ (aq) Cd 2+ (aq) + 4 NH 3 (aq) K = 1.0 x 10 -7 2)A rxn mixture that originally contains 11 mol A and 0 mol B in a 1.0 L container is allowed to reach equilibrium. What are the [A] and [B] @ equilibrium? A(g)B(g)K = 10 3)Phosgene, COCl 2, is a toxic substance that is produced by the reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine. The K c for the reaction is 5.0. If the equilibrium concentrations for the reactio are [Cl 2 ] = 0.25 M and [COCl 2 ] = 0.80 M, what is the equilibrium concentration of CO(g)? CO(g) + Cl 2 (g) COCl 2 (g)

49. Le Ch âtelier ’ s Principle When Country A ’ s citizens feel overcrowded, some will emigrate to Country B.

50. However, as time passes, emigration will occur in both directions at the same rate, leading to populations in Country A and Country B that are constant, though not necessarily equal

51. Equilibrium is disturbed when the population of Country B grows.

52. The result will be people moving from Country B into Country A faster than people moving from Country A into Country B. This will continue until a new equilibrium between the populations is established, however the new populations will have different numbers of people than the old ones.

53. Le Ch âtelier ’ s Principle Le Châtelier's Principle: if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the position of equilibrium will shift to minimize the disturbance – Concentration – Pressure/Volume – Temperature – Concentrations of all the chemicals will change until equilibrium is re-established – The new concentrations will be different, but the equilibrium constant (K) will be the same

54. The Effect of Concentration Changes on Equilibrium

56. 56 The Effect of Pressure/Volume Changes

58. The Effect of Temperature Change on Equilibrium If the temp of a system at equilibrium is changed, the system will shift in a direction to counter that change A new K is established at the new temp

63. Catalysts Catalysts provide an alternative, more efficient mechanism Speed up rxn by lowering the E a Result in the same ratios of products and reactants at equilibrium Do not affect the position of equilibrium K stays the same

64. Questions The reaction 2 SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)  2 SO 3 (g) is exothermic. How will each of the following changes affect the equilibrium concentrations of each gas once equilibrium is re-established? 1)Adding more O 2 to the container 2)Removing SO 3 3)Compressing the gases 4)Cooling the container 5)Doubling the volume of the container 6)Warming the mixture 7)Adding SO 3 8)Adding a catalyst to the mixture