1. Earthquakes Most destructive forces on Earth. But it is buildings and other human structures that cause injury and death, not the earthquake itself 1988 - Soviet Armenia: magnitude 6.9, 25,000 people died 1985 - Mexico City: magnitude 8.1, 9500 people 1989 - Loma Prieta, CA: magnitude 7.1, 40 people died 1995 - Kobe, Japan: magnitude 7, ~6000 people died

2. Earthquakes and seismic waves (Chapter 11) Earthquakes are natural hazards, destructive to life and property, caused by seismic waves Seismic waves move through the Earth’s interior and can be used like “X- rays” to understand the Earth ‘s interior

3. How do earthquakes occur? Stresses build up in the crust, usually due to lithospheric plate motions Rock deform (strain) as the result of stress. The strain is energy stored in the rocks.

4. How do earthquakes occur? When the rocks reach their elastic limit, they break, and energy is released in the form of seismic waves, radiating out from the earthquake focus The rocks return to their original shape, with a displacement (slip) along the fault

5. Earthquake focus: center of rupture or slip, seismic waves radiate out from the focus Earthquake epicenter – the point on the Earth’s surface over the focus

6. Kind of seismic waves P-waves – most rapid (8 km/sec) S-waves – slower (5 km/sec), cannot move through liquids Surface waves – even slower, move only on surface, most destructive

7. Surface waves

8. Detecting and measuring seismic waves Seismometers: The paper roll moves with the ground The pen remains stationary, because of the spring, hinge and weight

9. Tells you: 1)How far away the earthquake occurred, based on the time difference between p and s –wave arrivals 2)Magnitude of ground motion, based on the amplitude of the surface waves Seismogram

10. The time interval between p and s-wave arrivals tells you how far away the epicenter is

11. Triangulate from 3 stations to locate the epicenter

12. Earthquake magnitude is related to the amount of energy released by the earthquake. The Richter magnitude M L is measured using the amplitude of the seismic waves. Another measure is called the moment magnitude M w

14. Indonesia (12/04) Japan (3/11) China (5/08) Pakistan (10/05) Some Notable Earthquakes

15. Duration of Shaking 1989 Loma Prieta: 15 seconds 1960 San Francisco: 40 seconds 1962 Alaska: 4 minutes!!!!

16. Earthquake hazards: 1.Ground vibration and motion 2.Liquefaction of clay rich sediments 3.Landslides 4.Tsunami

17. Earthquake hazards: Liquefaction of clay rich sediments

31. Earthquake hazards: Liquefaction of clay rich sediments Landslides

32. Earthquake hazards: Tsunamis – seismic sea waves very long wavelength, deep wavebase speeds up to 800 km/hour, 15- 30 meters high

33. Tsunami – Northern Sumatra December 2004

34. Japan 3/11/11

43. http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ Many tsunamis originate at circum-Pacific convergent margins, therefore the Pacific Tsunami Warning system was established

44. Preparing for earthquakes Assess hazards (how will an earthquake affect an area) Assess likelihood (probability, based on location of faults and prior events) Modify zoning regulations and building codes to withstand hazard

45. Forecasting Earthquakes: Unlike, volcanic eruptions, short-term warnings (precursors) are not well known Real-time warning (after earthquake has occurred) can be effective – radio waves & fiber optic transmissions to shut down reactors, close gas lines, etc. within seconds or minutes Long term earthquake probability is estimated using the Seismic Gap Method