1. © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Agriculture and rural development continued  V: Internal Colonization of Tropical Lowlands - Amazonia  The issue of lowland tropical deforestation Mexican Agriculture- an example of a dual system Other examples of Commercial Agriculture in LA

2. © T. M. Whitmore LAST TIME- Questions? Agriculture and rural development continued  IV: Dual agricultural systems or “The Productivity Paradox”  V: Internal Colonization of Tropical Lowlands

3. © T. M. Whitmore Agricultural and Rural Development V: Internal Colonization of Tropical South American LowlandsLowlands Example III from Amazonia  > 600 million ha  Amazonian environments  Terra firme  Várza  Savanna

4. © T. M. Whitmore Development history in Amazonia I Early extractive usesextractive “Spontaneous” peasant agricultural colonization and Governmentally planned colonization in  Brazilian Amazon Brazilian  Andean Amazon Andean

5. © T. M. Whitmore Development in Amazonia II Patterns of peasant colonization  Fishbone patterns Fishbone  Scale & geography of change Scale  Causes  Cattle ranching Cattle  Consequences Consequences  Ecuadorian “Oriente”Oriente Commercial expansion of modern agriculture  Example of soy in Mato Grososoy in Mato Groso

6. © T. M. Whitmore Amazonian deforestation Wider consequences  In Brazil  speculation and abandoned lands  Loss of rare tropical rain forest  Destruction of species  Destruction of Indigenous people’s traditional livelihood  Consequences for global warming  Fails to solve land tenure problem  Local weather impacts Solutions?

8. © T. M. Whitmore Fordlândia Jarí Area of high density of rubber trees

9. © T. M. Whitmore

10. © Greenpeace / Felipe Goifman

11. Planned Spontaneous Amazonian colonization

13. USGS

14. © T. M. Whitmore

21. Source: NASA

23. Source: Frontiers in Ecology

25. © Roger J. Harris, 2001

30. Ecuadorian Oriente © Christine Erlien

31. © Koeppe

33. Soy in S America

34. © Koeppe

36. © T. M. Whitmore Tropical DeforestationDeforestation Deforestation ratesrates Causes  Agricultural clearing  Pasture clearing  Timber harvesting  Oil exploration/extraction  Population growth?  Degradation of lands in source areas of migrants  Poor land tenure equity in source areas of migrants  Urban poverty

39. © T. M. Whitmore Mexican Agriculture-examples Dual system spatially and functionally Regions in Mexican agriculture  Northern irrigated oasesirrigated  Mesa Central and BajíoBajío  Commercial, specialty, & small holderspecialty  Southern highland Mexico, lowlands near Gulf of Mexico, and Yucatan Southern highland Mexico, lowlands near Gulf of Mexico, and Yucatan  Commercial & small holdersmall holder

40. Bajío

41. Irrigated maize in Bajío

43. Tequila

44. Pulque (like tequila & mezcal, pulque is from maguey, a species of agave) – not a cactus

45. Magueys in fallow field C. Mexico

46. © T. M. Whitmore Traditional maize cob storage

47. Milpa (i.e., field – usually corn) in Chiapas

48. © T. M. Whitmore Commercial Agriculture in LA Argentina Chilean central valley Brazil Peru’s coastal oasescoastal Columbia’s coffee Columbia’s Specialty crops: coca, flowers, fernscocaflowersferns Central America’s 3 Cs3 C

49. Pampas Wines

50. Argentine Soy (98% GMO)

51. Navin Ramankutty, Nicholas J. Olejniczak, and Jonathan A. Foley Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment http://www.sage.wisc.edu Cultivation Intensity

52. © T. M. Whitmore Soy Citrus Fruit

53. © T. M. Whitmore

54. © Chris Jochem 2006 North coastal Peruvian cane

55. © T. M. Whitmore

59. Cut flower cultivation on ancient terraces; near Tarma, Peru

60. © T. M. Whitmore Cut flower cultivation on ancient terraces; near Tarma, Peru

61. © T. M. Whitmore Fern growth under mesh In cloud forest in the Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala

62. © T. M. Whitmore

63. coffee Tropical plantation crops Cotton, sugar

64. © T. M. Whitmore