1. Human Development (9) 1. Issues in Developmental Psychology
2. Stage Theories of Development
3. Heredity and Prenatal Development
4. Infancy, Early and Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early and Middle Adulthood
7. Later Adulthood
Human Development Notes…
If this lesson interests you, you may want to take Psych 41 on Life Span Psychology.

2. What is Development? Development Biological processes
the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span
Biological processes
Cognitive processes
Socio-emotional processes
Nature vs. Nurture
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. It consists of a combination of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes.
Biological processes…processes that involve changes in an individual’s physical nature.
Cognitive processes…processes that involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Socio-emotional processes…processes that involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality.
Do people develop because of their genes (nature) or their environment (nurture)? As discussed in the previous lesson on twin studies, each plays a role, neither is 100%. Maturation is the term used to refer to the orderly sequence of changes dictated by each person’s genetic blueprint.
The nature vs. nurture debate is interesting. Are you who you are because of your genes? Is there something in your genetic makeup that predisposes you (inclines or makes you susceptible) to be more sensitive or resistant to the forces in your environment? What part does your culture, religion, or community play?

3. Biological Development Step 1
Mom
X X
Dad
X Y
Girl
Boy
Mom
blue blue
Dad
blue brown
Here are the basics of biological development:
Step 1: Chromosomes (really simple genetics here)
Each cell in the human body contain 46 chromosomes, which are grouped into 23 pairs. The last pair determine the sex of the person. The larger chromosomes are shaped like an “X”; the smaller ones like a “Y”. Every female has 2 X’s (XX) and every male has one X and one Y (XY).
Upon conception, each parent contributes 23 chromosomes (23 in mom’s egg and 23 in dad’s sperm), which are paired up. One of these 23 is the sex chromosome (an X or a Y). The mom has two X’s and always gives an X chromosome to her child. The dad has an X and a Y, and will give either an X or a Y to his child. There is a 50% chance that he will give an X chromosome and the result is a girl, and a 50% chance that he will give a Y chromosome and the result is a boy.
So if Dad wanted a boy, but got a girl, it’s his own fault! 
Each of the 46 chromosomes contains millions of genes which program the organism to grow organs and appendages. They also determine whether you will have blue eyes or brown, blonde hair or red. Some genes are dominant (stronger) and others are recessive (weaker). If you get a dominant gene for eye color (brown) from your mom and a recessive one (blue) from your dad,
blue blue
= blue eyes
blue brown
= brown eyes
blue blue
= blue eyes
blue brown
= brown eyes

4. Biological Development Steps 2 – 5
Step 2: zygote
Step 3: blastocyst
Step 4: embryo
Step 5: fetus
There’s a wealth of pictures and info at this Fetal Development web site . Here’s a summary:
Step 2: Zygote (conception to week 1)
Now that our little ovum has been fertilized, we call it a zygote. The cells began to divide. Each of these cells has the potential to be a heart, lung, brain, spleen, or any other body part. These are stem cells. Is a zygote a baby? A potential baby? It depends on your religious background and personal beliefs!
Step 3: Blastocyst (week 1-2)
The cells in the zygote continues to divide until they form into a blastocyst, a layered clump of cells.
Steps 3: Embryo (week 2-12)
The outer layer will attach to the uterine wall and become the placenta. The inner layer of cells are now called the embryo (early baby). See the link!
Step 5: Fetus (week 13-40)
Once the baby reaches 13 weeks of development, it is known as a fetus. All the appendages (arms, legs, fingers, and toes) are visible.
Fetal Development web site

5. Negative Influences on Prenatal Development
Teratogens
Critical periods
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Babies can be both sensitive and resistant to outside influences. What negatively affects one does not affect another. Here are some dangers to the fetus:
Teratogens are substances that can cross the placental barrier which have a negative impact on prenatal development, i.e. illegal drugs and prescription drugs.
Critical periods are times in development when certain events may have lasting consequences to the development of the fetus. If a drug such as thalidomide is introduced during the early months, the fetus’ arms may not develop properly.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is caused by drinking during pregnancy, resulting in the child being mentally retarded, have an abnormally small head, wide-set eyes and a short nose. Many children with FAS have learning disabilities.

6. Physical Development
You can see on this chart the physical development of babies during their first year. Notice anything missing? Not all babies crawl?

7. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor (0-2 )
Preoperational (2-7 )
Concrete Operations (7-12)
Formal Operations (12+)
Video on Piaget
All children seem to progress through these stages of cognitive development, proposed by Piaget (“pee-uh-zhay”). See the video for more:
Sensorimotor (0-2 ) – Infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and their motor activities. Babies tend to interact with the world through their tongues, the most sensitive part of their bodies. They begin to understand object permanence, which is understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when the cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched (why we play peek-a-boo)
Preoperational (2-7 ) – Children develop symbolic function and show tendency toward egocentrism. Symbolic function is understanding that we use symbols, such as letters and numbers, to communicate. Egocentrism is self-awareness, but believing that the world revolves around them! This extends to believing that their own thoughts create reality, so wishes really do come true.
Concrete Operations (7-12) – Children develop conservation and reversibility. Conservation is a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects or situations in spite of superficial changes. If you have one cup of water in a mug, they you pour it in a tall, thin tube, they begin to understand that the water will need to gain height in the tube as it loses width from the mug. Reversibility is the understanding that events can have any number of possible outcomes or consequences, and that effects have causes.

8. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. mistrust (0-1)
Autonomy vs. shame and
doubt (1-3)
Initiative vs. guilt (3-6)
Industry vs. inferiority (6-11)
Identity vs. role confusion (11-22)
Intimacy vs. isolation (22-40)
Generativity vs. stagnation (40-65)
Integrity vs. despair (65+)
Erik Erikson proposed these stages of psychosocial development (the numbers indicate the approximate age of the person in that stage). At each stage the person struggles with both concepts; he/she must resolve the conflict before moving on to the next stage.
Trust vs. mistrust (0-1). Babies learn that when they cry, someone will take care of their needs. This is the basis of trust. Playing “peek-a-boo” also establishes trust – the babies develop a trust that the person on whom they depend will return.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3) This stage occurs during toilet training and the “terrible twos”. Toddlers assert their autonomy by saying, “NO!” a lot. If they don’t develop a sense of control over themselves and their environment, they experience shame and doubt about their lack of control.
Initiative vs. guilt (3-6) Children in the preschool years attempt to initiate many activities, some of which will succeed, and some will fail. When adults encourage this initiative, children believe in their abilities; when adults punish children for this initiative, they feel guilt.

9. Child Temperament Easy children Difficult children
Slow to Warm-up children
Inconsistent
Children seem to display a natural temperament from birth: they are pleasant, or whiny, or easygoing, or determined to be miserable. In a study of children’s temperaments…
Easy children: had generally pleasant moods, were adaptable, approached new situations and people positively, and established regular sleeping, eating, and elimination (urination and defecation) patterns. (40% of group studied)
Difficult children: had generally unpleasant moods, reacted negatively to new situations and people, were intense in their emotional reactions, and showed irregularity in bodily functions. (10% of group studied)
Slow to Warm-up children: tended to withdraw, were slow to adapt, and were “somewhat negative in mood.” (15% of group studied)
The remaining 35% of children were too inconsistent to categorize.
It is possible for one to change his/her basic temperament, but it takes conscious effort.

10. Parenting Styles Authoritarian Authoritative
Permissive or Laissez-faire
The goal of discipline? Self-discipline!
What kind of parent did you have? What kind of parent are you (or will you be)?
Authoritarian. Parents make rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority. (Because I said so, that’s why!) Children of authoritarian parents tend to have trouble with decision-making as adults, since they were not given alternatives from which to choose as children.
Authoritative – parents set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and at the same time encourage open communication and independence.
Permissive or Laissez Faire – parents make few rules or demands and usually do no enforce those that are made. They believe that if they let children set their own limits, children will learn from their mistakes. Unfortunately, these children do learn to discriminate between appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
Children need rules and want limits, but also need to learn how to set limits for themselves. The authoritative style is generally considered the healthiest.
The goal of discipline is self-discipline. Whether you believe in spanking or timeouts for misbehavior, the goal is to teach the child to make a better choice in the future. Refer back to the lesson on operant conditioning to review how rewards and punishments shape behavior.

11. Ainsworth’s Theory of Attachment
Securely attached (65% of American Infants)
Avoidant attachment (20% of American Infants)
Resistant Attachment (10-15% of American Infants)
Disorganized/disoriented attachment (5-10% of American Infants.
Monkey study link
Attachment is a close emotional bond between the infant and its caregivers. The classic Harry Harlow study of attachment was performed with a baby monkey. He was taken away from his mother and given two surrogate mothers: a metal, mesh casing with a milk bottle that was attached to it and a warm, soft monkey doll. After nursing, the monkey preferred the soft doll, indicating that attachment and touch are more important to development than basic nutrition. The doll was not enough for the monkey to develop normally, though. He was unable to relate to other monkeys, and displayed antisocial tendencies. See the link for more: Monkey study link
Mary Ainsworth proposed these different levels of attachment in children:
Securely attached (65% of American Infants) infants use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. They cry when she leaves and are happy when she returns.
Avoidant attachment (20% of American Infants) infants rarely cry when the mothers leave. They avoid her when she returns.
Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment (10-15% of American Infants) infants are anxious before the mothers leave, and become upset when she does leave. When she returns, these infants want contact, but rather than be comforted, they squirm and kick.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment (5-10% of American Infants) infants are inconsistent in their behavior – sometimes clingy, sometimes distant.

12. Adolescence Late Adulthood Adolescent Egocentrism Imaginary Audience
Personal Fable
Invulnerability Fable
Late Adulthood
Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence
Some peculiarities of adolescent thought…
Adolescent Egocentrism…they’re the center of the universe! Includes:
An Imaginary Audience consists of admirers and critics that adolescents conjure up that exist only in their imagination. A teenager’s belief that they are being watched, criticized, or laughed at.
Personal Fable – A teenager’s exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility.
Invulnerability fable – Teen’s belief that he/she is impervious to danger, including drugs, reckless driving, and pregnancy.
Adolescence is often seen as a “sturm und drang”, or storm-and-stress period of turbulence charged with conflict and mood swings. This can be caused by hormone shifts, the identity vs. role confusion stage of Erikson’s, peer pressures, and the pushing of parental limits.
Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood:
Crystallized Intelligence – one’s verbal ability and accumulated knowledge (tends to increase over the life span)… the facts of history, for example.
Fluid Intelligence – abstract reasoning and mental flexibility (peaks in the early 20s and declines slowly as people age)… such as problem solving in new situations.

13. Aging and cognitive function
Senile dementia (senility)
Alzheimer’s Disease
High blood pressure and memory
Keep up those skills!
Life expectancy quiz
Aging is a combination of cellular degeneration, a change in social roles, and a belief in one’s abilities. Men experience a lessening of sexual function which affects their identities as sexual beings. Women undergoing menopause (a cessation of menstruation) may also change their self-image about their identities as sexual beings.
The effect of aging on mental capacity…
Senile dementia (senility) is a state of severe mental deterioration marked by impaired memory and intellect, as well as by altered personality and behavior. There is no guarantee that anyone will become senile – some stay as sharp as ever until the day they die! Senility and Alzheimer’s tends to run in families, suggesting a genetic link.
Alzheimer’s Disease is a progressive deterioration of intellect and personality that results from widespread degeneration of brain cells. It eventually causes death.
High blood pressure and memory. According to WebMD, those with hypertension may have problems with short-term memory.
The aged generally keep the skills they have from their youth. There may be some deterioration as you age. See the article in the link: Keep up those skills
Here is a life expectancy quiz…
While there is no sure way to calculate your life expectancy, there are certain guidelines that can give you rough estimates. If you are between 25 and 65 years of

14. Stages of Death and Dying
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross theorized the stages of grief. She intended for these stages to describe the experience by the ill/dying person, not their loved ones, although many people think they apply:
Denial. The disbelief that death is imminent.
Anger. This can take the form of anger at God, anger at the tobacco companies, or anger at the dying person for “leaving”.
Bargaining. Usually with God… “If you let me live, I promise that I’ll ________.”
Depression. The individual or loved one loses hope for recovery, and begin to understand that death is imminent.
Acceptance. The individual or loved one accepts that this is a natural stage of life, and may even find peace or solace.
Many people who do not actively believe or participate in religion, choose to explore a religion and the concepts of the afterlife when facing death.