1. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition, Chapter 4: Threads

2. 4.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Threads Concept So far we assumed a process was an executing program with a single thread of control. Motivating example - A web server accepts client requests for Web pages, images, sound, and so forth (see example in next page) A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization (why CPU? What if it differed just in a specific device utilization?) ; it comprises: Thread ID Program counter Register set Stack It shares with other threads belonging to the same process, its Code section Data section and Other OS resources such as open files If a process has multiple threads of control, it can perform more than one task at a time.

3. 4.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Multithreaded Server Architecture

4. 4.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Single and Multithreaded Processes Example – word processor: (a) displaying graphics, (b) responding to keystroke, (c) spell checker

5. 4.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Benefits Responsiveness – allow a program to continue running even if part of it is blocked or performing a lengthy operation (e.g., web- browser loading an image) Resource Sharing – threads share the memory and resources of the process (allows an application to have several threads of activity within the same address space) Economy – it is more economical to create and context-switch threads (because they share resources of the process to which they belong) In Solaris a process is thirty times slower to create and five times slower to context-switch Scalability (utilizing multiprocessor architectures) – same process can make use of several CPUs by using threads

6. 4.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Multicore Programming Multicore systems putting pressure on programmers, challenges include: Dividing activities –find areas that can be divided into separate, concurrent tasks and thus can run in parallel on individual cores. Balance – ensure tasks perform equal work of equal value Data splitting – ensure that the data be divided to run on separate cores just like the application is divided into separate tasks. Data dependency – ensure that the execution of the tasks is synchronized to accommodate data dependency. Testing and debugging – more difficult than for single-threaded applications since there are many different execution paths when a program is running in parallel on multiple cores.

7. 4.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Concurrent Execution on a Single/Multi-core System

8. 4.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition User and Kernel Threads Kernel thread (sometimes called a Lightweight Process - LWP) is created and scheduled by the kernel: More expensive to create than user threads User thread is created by a threading library and scheduling is managed by the threading library itself (Which runs in user mode). All user threads belong to process that created them. Kernel is unaware of user-level threads so all thread The major difference is when using multiprocessor systems: User threads completely managed by the threading library can't be ran in parallel on the different CPUs (will run fine on uniprocessor systems) Since kernel threads use the kernel scheduler, different kernel threads can run on different CPUs. Programs can have user-space threads when threading with timers, signals, or other methods to interrupt their own execution, performing a sort of ad- hoc time-slicing.

9. 4.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition User Threads Thread management done by user-level threads library Three primary thread libraries: POSIX Pthreads Win32 threads Java threads

10. 4.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Kernel Threads Supported by the Kernel Examples Windows XP/2000 Solaris Linux Mac OS X

11. 4.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Multithreading Models Many-to-One One-to-One Many-to-Many

12. 4.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Many-to-One Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread Thread management is done by the thread library in user space, so it is efficient. Drawback - the entire process will block if a thread makes a blocking system call. Examples: Solaris Green Threads GNU Portable Threads

13. 4.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition One-to-One Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread More concurrency compared to many-to-one model since another thread will be able to run when a thread makes a blocking system call. Allows multiple threads to run in parallel on multiprocessors. Drawback: Creating a user thread requires creating a corresponding kernel thread. Performance will degrade and hence, most systems has a restriction on the number of threads allowed. Examples Windows NT/XP/2000 Linux Solaris 9 and later

14. 4.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Many-to-Many Model Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel threads Allows the operating system to create a sufficient number of kernel threads Solaris prior to version 9 Windows NT/2000 with the ThreadFiber package

15. 4.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Two-level Model Similar to M:M, except that it allows a user thread to be bound to kernel thread Examples IRIX HP-UX Tru64 UNIX Solaris 8 and earlier

16. 4.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Thread Libraries Thread library provides programmer with API for creating and managing threads Two primary ways of implementing Library entirely in user space Kernel-level library supported by the OS -> invoking a function in the library results with a system call

17. 4.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Pthreads May be provided either as user-level or kernel-level A POSIX standard (IEEE 1003.1c) API for thread creation and synchronization API specifies behavior of the thread library, implementation is up to development of the library (i.e. the OS designers) Common in UNIX operating systems (Solaris, Linux, Mac OS X)

18. 4.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Java Threads Java threads are managed by the JVM Typically implemented using the threads model provided by underlying OS Java threads may be created by: Extending Thread class (and override its run() method) Implementing the Runnable interface Calling start() Allocates memory and initializes a new thread in the JVM Calls the run() method, making the thread eligible to run on the JVM

19. 4.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Threading Issues Thread cancellation of target thread Asynchronous or deferred Signal handling Thread pools Thread-specific data Scheduler activations

20. 4.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Thread Cancellation Terminating a thread before it has finished Example: multiple threads concurrently searching through a database and one thread returns the result Stopping a webpage from loading any further Two general approaches: Asynchronous cancellation terminates the target thread immediately – may not free its resources Deferred cancellation allows the target thread to periodically check if it should be cancelled – checking a flag

21. 4.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Signal Handling Signals are used in UNIX systems to notify a process that a particular event has occurred Example: illegal memory access, division by zero A signal handler is used to process signals  Signal is generated by particular event  Signal is delivered to a process  Signal is handled Options: Deliver the signal to the thread to which the signal applies Deliver the signal to every thread in the process Deliver the signal to certain threads in the process Assign a specific thread to receive all signals for the process

22. 4.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Thread Pools Create a number of threads in a pool where they await work Advantages: Usually slightly faster to service a request with an existing thread than create a new thread Allows the number of threads in the application(s) to be bound to the size of the pool Unlimited threads could exhaust system resources, such as CPU time or memory

23. 4.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Thread Specific Data Allows each thread to have its own copy of specific data Useful when you do not have control over the thread creation process (i.e., when using a thread pool) Example, in a transaction-processing system, service each transaction in a separate thread. Furthermore, each transaction might be assigned a unique identifier. To associate each thread with its unique identifier, use thread-specific data.

24. 4.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Scheduler Activations Both M:M and Two-level models require communication to maintain the appropriate number of kernel threads allocated to the application Such coordination allows the number of kernel threads to be dynamically adjusted to help ensure the best performance Communication between the user-level thread library and the kernel is known as Scheduler activations. Scheduler activations provide upcalls - a communication mechanism from the kernel to the thread library

25. 4.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Operating System Examples Windows XP Threads Linux Thread

26. 4.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Windows XP Threads Implements the one-to-one mapping, kernel-level Each thread contains A thread id Register set Separate user and kernel stacks Private data storage area The register set, stacks, and private storage area are known as the context of the threads The primary data structures of a thread include: ETHREAD (executive thread block) – pointer to process, address of the routine where control starts KTHREAD (kernel thread block) – scheduling and synchronization information TEB (thread environment block) – thread identifier, user- mode stack, thread specific data

27. 4.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Windows XP Threads

28. 4.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts – 8 th Edition Linux Threads Linux refers to them as tasks rather than threads Thread creation is done through clone() system call clone() allows a child task to share the address space of the parent task