1. Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Policing America: Issues and Ethics

2. Public Attitudes Toward the Police
What do people think of the police?
It depends on:
What you ask
Whom you ask
People’s prior experience
Overall, 59% of the public have “a great deal” or “quite a lot” of confidence in the police

3. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer
Robert B. Mills, a pioneer in the psychological testing of police officers, believes that police applicants should possess the following psychological qualities:
Motivation for a police career.
Normal self-assertiveness.
Emotional stability under stress.
Sensitivity toward minority groups and social deviates.

4. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer
Collaborative leadership skills
A mature relationship with social authority
Flexibility
Integrity and honesty
An active and outgoing nature

5. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer
Particularly important qualities are known as the three I’s of police selection.
The Three I’s of Police Selection
Intelligence
Integrity
Interaction skills
Nearly as important are common sense and compassion.

6. Police Recruitment
The kind of people many departments need to attract often do not naturally gravitate to police work.
The major goal of recruiting is to cast police work as an attractive and sustaining career, even to those who might initially be turned off by it.

7. Education
The average level of education in policing today is nearly two years of college.
College-educated police officers perform better on the job than less educated officers.
The advantages of hiring college-educated officers are the following:
Better written reports.
Enhanced communication with the public.
More effective job performance.
Fewer citizen complaints.
Wiser use of discretion.
Heightened sensitivity to racial and ethnic issues.
Fewer disciplinary actions.

8. Police Selection Process
In many communities, selection of police officers is through a merit system.
Officers employed under such a system are hired and tenured (theoretically) if they meet and maintain the employment qualifications and performance standards.
They cannot be fired without cause.

9. Police Selection Process
The police officer selection process often includes:
Short application.
Detailed application, including complete work history, references, and medical profile.
Medical examination.
Physical ability test.
Written examination.
Background investigation.
Psychological testing.
Oral interview.

10. Selection of LE Executive
The selection of a chief executive of a police agency is a crucial decision.
The selection process often involves:
Decision by a selection committee.
An executive search firm.
Several visits to the city.
Written exams.
Interviews.
Assessment center testing.

11. Introduction to Criminal Justice
Chapter 7: Policing America: Issues and Ethics

12. Issues in Policing Discretion Stress Use of force Police corruption
Professionalizing law enforcement

13. Discretion Patrol officers routinely use their discretion in deciding:
Where to patrol when not answering radio calls.
Whom to stop and question.
Which traffic violators to chase.
To ignore a minor violation in pursuit of something more serious.
Full Enforcement
Selective Enforcement

14. Factors Affecting Discretion
A number of significant factors affect discretion:
The nature of the crime.
Departmental policies.
The relationship between the victim and the offender.
The amount of evidence available.
The preference of the victim.
The demeanor of the suspect.
The legitimacy of the victim.
Socioeconomic status of the complainant.

15. Discretion and Domestic Violence
Today police are required to intervene if crimes are committed, by:
mediating the dispute
separating the domestic partners, or
arresting the perpetrator
Which tactic is appropriate is often decided by the officer.

16. Discretion and Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is of growing concern to law enforcement officials and to the public.
Often stops are “justified” by minor equipment or moving traffic violations that might otherwise be ignored.
At the root of the practice is racial profiling.
The stopping and/or detaining of individuals by law enforcement officers based solely on race.

17. Factors Limiting Discretion
Several methods are employed to control the amount of discretion exercised by police officers:
Close supervision.
Policies covering behavior in certain situations, such as the use of force.
The threat of civil liability lawsuits.

18. Use of Force
A precise definition of brutality is not possible, but for many people, brutality includes not only excessive physical force, but also:
verbal abuse
profanity
harassment
threats of force
unnecessary stopping, questioning, and searching of citizens

19. Deadly Force Tennessee v. Garner
The use of deadly force is not justifiable unless:
The arrest is for a felony.
The person effecting the arrest is authorized to act as a peace officer or is assisting a person whom he believes to be authorized to act as a peace officer.
The actor believes that the force employed creates no substantial risk of injury to innocent persons.

20. Deadly Force The actor believes that:
The crime for which the arrest is made involved conduct including the use or threatened use of deadly force.
There is substantial risk that the person to be arrested will cause death or serious bodily harm if his or her apprehension is delayed.

21. Police Corruption Why is policing so susceptible to corruption?
Police have authority to enforce laws.
Police also have the discretion to not enforce the law.
Police receive relatively low pay, but have important responsibilities.
Police become cynical about the courts’ soft treatment of criminals.
Society in general is ambivalent about vice.

22. Types of Corruption
The Knapp Commission in 1972 identified two kinds of corrupt officers:
“Grass eaters”
Officers who occasionally engage in illegal and unethical activities, such as accepting small favors, gifts, or money for ignoring violations of the law during the course of their duties.
“Meat eaters”
Officers who actively seek ways to make money illegally while on duty.

23. Types of Corruption
Ellwyn Stoddard identified a more complete list of police misconduct:
Bribery: accepting cash or gifts in exchange for nonenforcement of the law.
Chiseling: demanding discounts, free admission, and free food.
Extortion: the threat of enforcement and arrest if a bribe is not given.

24. Types of Corruption
Favoritism: giving breaks on law enforcement to family and friends.
Mooching: accepting free food, drinks, and admission to entertainment.
Perjury: lying for other officers apprehended in illegal activity.
Prejudice: unequal enforcement of the law with respect to racial and ethnic minorities.
Premeditated theft: planned burglaries and theft.
Shakedown: taking items form the scene of a theft or a burglary.
Shopping: taking small, inexpensive items from a crime scene.

25. Controlling Corruption
Some of the ways to control and reduce corruption in policing are:
High moral standards.
Police policies and discipline.
Proactive internal affairs investigations unit.
Uniform enforcement of the law.
Outside review and special prosecutors.
Court review and oversight.