1. The Science of Marine Biology

2. Latitude/longitude system Developed by Greeks Latitude = east-west Longitude = north-south In degrees 1 degree=60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds Latitude lines never intersect so called parallels- 0*parallel = equator Longitude lines called meridians- 0* meridian goes through the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England (the prime meridian)

3. Other cultures such as Egyptians, Pacific Islanders, the Vikings and Arab traders also studied the oceans as well Early explorer video Polynesians underwent the earliest known regular long-distance, open- ocean out of sight of land voyages

4. Middle Ages (800 A.D -1400) A time of “intellectual darkness” Become an illiterate society Believed Earth was flat Only European voyages were Vikings

5. Viking Explorations (790 A.D. – 1100) Established trade routes with Britain, Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia. Discovered Iceland, Greenland and North America (Newfoundland, Canada) Contributed to European ship design

6. Chinese Explorations Invented the magnetic compass (1125) Traded with Korea, Japan, and Australia Contributed central rudders and watertight compartments to ship building

7. European Explorations (1400-1700) Renaissance period- centered in Italy Ocean expeditions were conduced for economic, political and religious reasons

8. James Cook and the Birth of Marine Science An English sea captain One of the first to make scientific observations on his travels and to include a full time naturalist Beginning in 1768, he explored all of the oceans Used the chronometer- an instrument that helped to determine his longitude and latitude and make accurate charts

9. First European to see the Antarctic and to land in Hawaii, New Zealand, Tahiti and other Pacific islands. Killed in 1779 in a fight with native Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay Hawaii

10. Charles Darwin English Naturalist on the Beagle -1831 Described atolls- rings of coral reef Studied plankton and barnacles

11. United States Exploring Expedition 1838-1842 The “Wilkes Expedition” 2 out of 6 ships returned Confirmed Antarctica was a continent Explored 280 islands Collected 2,000 unknown species video

12. Matthew Maury- Father of Physical Oceanography US Naval Officer 1834-1841 3 world tours 1842 appointed superintendent of Dept of Charts and Instruments of the Navy department Began publishing his work His system for recording oceanic data was adapted worldwide especially his studies of currents and winds

13. The Challenger Expedition- British First expedition entirely devoted to marine science- 1872 to 1876 Sailed 80,778 miles Report took 23 years to complete Discovered the Mid-Atlantic ridge and the Marianas Trench

14. Took the first soundings deeper than 4000 meters Discovered marine organisms in the deepest part of the ocean Sampled and illustrated plankton Catalogued and identified 715 new genera and 4717 new species NASA named space shuttle after it

15. Oceanography Explosion Due to Industrial Revolution and the advancement of technology Rise of steam engines and iron ships Development of the diesel engine, electric motor and lead-acid battery lead to the development of submarines Wealthier countries = more research $ therefore applied research increased dramatically as well as pure research The Cold War and global conflict fueled scientific discovery

16. Important 20 th Century Expeditions German Meteor expedition- 1925 One of 1 st modern oceanographic research cruises Crossed Atlantic 14 times in two years Mapped Atlantic seafloor with echo- sounding technology- 1 st one of its kind

17. Atlantis expedition- U.S.- 1931 1 st ship built specifically for ocean studies Confirmed and mapped the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Space shuttle named after it

18. New H.M.S. Challenger II- 1951 2 year voyage to the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans Found deepest part of ocean (the Challenger Deep) in the Marianas Trench- 10, 838 meters

19. RV Flip

20. SUBMERSIBLES AND SELF- CONTAINED DIVING

21. Submersibles 3 basic types 1. Bathysphere- developed by William Beebe and Otis Barton in the 1930’s Steel ball with a window and an umbilical Only went vertically- attached by a cable to a ship 1932 Beebe and Barton reached 661 meters

22. The bathysphere (1930)

23. 2. Bathyscaphe Similar to bathysphere except it was attached to a large float instead of to a cable and ship Limited horizontal motion because of propellers Deepest diving submersibles ever made Trieste traveled to the bottom of the Challenger Deep

25. 3. Deep-Diving submersibles 2-3 person vessels Moderate to deep depths Good horizontal movement No float tanks Less fragile Robotic arms Alvin most famous-discovered the Titanic- Jason Project- operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (US Navy)

26. Johnson Sealink Submersible

27. Advantages of submersibles Great depths Duration of dives are longer Disadvantages of submersibles Very expensive Need of support vessels and diving teams Very large, so not able to have access to many places

28. Self-Contained Diving 1 st was hard-hat (helmet) diving- Englishman named Augustus Siebe- 1840 Good for underwater labor, not good for research because it was heavy and required a support team and vessel

29. 427 ft in Lk Michigan NOAA, US Monitor

30. Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced the first workable scuba in 1878 Recirculated pure oxygen which is only useable to a depth of 10 meters or 33 ft Frenchman Jacques Cousteau and engineer Emile Gagnan developed the scuba system used today in 1943 Delivers compressed air and only provides it when the diver inhaled Easy to use, lightweight, simple, little support needed

31. Advantages of SCUBA Less expensive Very simple- don’t need a team Portable and small More dexterity Disadvantages of SCUBA Usually limited to about 40-50 m (130-165 ft)-compressed air and to about 150 m with synthetic breathing gases Duration is smaller due to cold, pressure, and fatigue

33. Hardsuits - 1913 In between a submersible and scuba More protection from temp. and pressure More mobile than submersibles Deeper dives Expensive Also need some team support as well

34. ROVs, AUVs, Electronic Navigation, and Satellites

35. ROVs “Remotely operated vehicle” Small unmanned submarine with propellers, video camera and an umbilical Operator at surface Can have arms, claws and other tools

36. AUVs “Autonomous Underwater Vehicle” Untethered robotic device Self-contained power systems Controlled by an attached computer Maneuverable in 3 dimensions

37. Electronic navigation 1 st was LORAN (Long Range Navigation)- 1960s Developed into Loran-C- based on radio signals from the coast- needed to triangulate to get ships position Accurate within a few meters But only worked where Loran transmitters were located Accuracy depended on distance from transmitter

38. Satellites – sea surface observations.

39. a) Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the oceans. b) Satellites assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate systems. c) Information gathered from satellites helps to validate computer models that numerically simulate climatic events. 1) Three types of sea surface observations made by satellites o benefit oceanographers:

40. a) Provide long-time continuous measurements of variables such as sea-surface height, shape, temperature, and color over the entire planet. b) Can detect algae blooms and river plumbs, monitor pollution, and assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate system. c) Scientists can look at large areas of ocean in a very short time.

41. GPS “Global Positioning System”- 1990s Developed by U.S. Military Receives signals from satellites Accurate within 1-2 meters