1. Biochemistry
The Chemistry of Life

2. Basic Chemistry Atom Simplest unit of matter
Made up of three different “subatomic” particles

3. Subatomic Particles Protons Neutrons Electrons
Have a positive charge (+)
Have mass
Located in nucleus
Neutrons
Are neutral, have no charge (0)
Electrons
Have a negative charge (-)
Almost no mass
Located in “energy levels” outside of nucleus

4. # Protons (+) = # Electrons (-)
Atomic Number:
Tells you the number of protons an atom has, and also the # of electrons
Atoms are neutral
# Protons (+) = # Electrons (-)

5. Atomic Mass:
Add together the number of protons and neutrons in nucleus of atom
Electrons hardly contribute any mass

6. Isotopes: Atoms of one type of element with different atomic masses
Same # of protons
Different # neutrons
Changes the mass only, the properties are the same

7. Radioactive Isotopes:
The nucleus of some isotopes is unstable
The atom with emit radiation
Radiation can be measured with tools
ex. Geiger counter
These isotopes can be used as useful tools in science
Ex:
Carbon-14 dating
Radiation treatment for cancer

8. Elements Substance made of only one type of atom
Each element has a unique atomic #
Elements most commonly found in living things
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)

9. Compounds Two or more elements chemically combined
Atoms held together by bonds.
Once bonds form, compounds will have new, and different properties

10. Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Contains carbon and hydrogen (and often O, N)
Ex: Glucose (C6H12O6), carbohydrate, lipids, proteins
Inorganic Compounds
Doesn’t contain carbon and hydrogen together
Ex: H2O, CO2, NH3, NaCl

11. Why do atoms form compounds?
Bonds that form between atoms give atoms a stable outer electron level.
Called a “stable octet” of valence electrons (8)

12. Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds:
One or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
Neutral atoms become positive & negative ions
Forms salts
(Ex: NaCl)
Ionic bond = attraction between (+) and (-) ions

14. Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared between atoms
Each bond represents a shared pair of electrons
Can form single, double or even triple bonds

15. Covalent bonds form molecules
Subscripts in the formula tell # of each atom
Ex: H2O, NH3, CO2, CH4

16. Ionic Bonds:
Transfer electrons
Covalent Bonds:
Share Electrons

17. Properties of Water Water is necessary for life
Contains covalent bonds

18. Water Molecules: H2O
(look like Mickey Mouse)

19. Water is a “Polar” molecule (like a magnet)
The bonds are “polar”
Oxygen attracts the electrons more than Hydrogen

20. Hydrogen Bonding:
bonding between the (+) H of one molecule and the (-) end of another molecule.
Makes water good at sticking to itself and other substances
Makes water good dissolver

21. Cohesion: water sticks to itself
Ex:
Water forms “beads” on smooth surface
Surface Tension allows insect to “skate”

22. Adhesion: water sticks to other substances
Ex: Capillary action: water molecules rise up small tubes

23. Heat Capacity: Water has a relatively high heat capacity Ex:
Lakes and oceans can absorb a lot of heat from sun without a drastic temperature change

24. Water as a Solvent: Dissolves most ionic and covalent substances
“Universal Solvent” = many things can dissolve in it.

25. Solute: substance being dissolved
Solvent: substance in which solute dissolves
Solution: evenly disbursed mixture
Suspensions: material in the water but just suspended not dissolved (ex: blood cells in blood)

26. pH of Solutions
pH Scale: way to measure concentration of H+ ions in solution
Ranges from 0 to 14
Pure water is neutral pH = 7

27. Litmus Paper:
Used to test pH of a solution
Red = acidic
Blue = basic

28. Acids: Form H+ ions
pH is <7
Ex: HCl (stomach acid), lemon juice

29. Bases: Produces OH- (hydroxide ions)
Also called “alkaline”
pH >7
Ex: Lye (NaOH) used as drain cleaner

30. Buffers: Maintain pH at a certain level
Usually between 6.5 – 7.5 (close to neutral)
Helps to maintain homeostasis in organism

31. Major Types of Chemical Reactions
Dehydration Synthesis: (Condensation)
Chemically combine two smaller molecules
Water is removed
“Dehydrate” = remove water
“Synthesis” = to make

32. Hydrolysis: Break apart large molecule into smaller pieces
Water is added
“Hydro” = water “Lysis” = to break

33. Polymerization: Create a large molecule (polymer)
Join up smaller “monomer” units
Often a dehydration synthesis reaction
Ex:
Join amino acids (monomer) to make protein (polymer)
Join glucose (monosaccharide) to make starch (polysaccharide)

34. Organic Compounds

35. Carbohydrates Sugars and starches FUNCTION:
Used as an energy source
Energy released during cellular respiration
Made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Ex:
C6H12O6, C12H22O11
Ratio of H of O is always 2:1

37. Basic Structure: “Ring” made of 5 carbons and 1 oxygen
Rings can join up by dehydration synthesis

38. 3 Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide's: 1 sugar ring
Disaccharides: 2 sugar rings
Polysaccharides: many sugar rings

39. Monosaccharide's: (Simple sugars)
All have formula C6H12O6
Single ring structure
End in “-ose”
Ex: glucose, fructose, galactose

40. Disaccharides: double sugars
All have formula C12H22O11
End in “-ose”
Ex: sucrose, lactose, maltose

41. Polysaccharides: 3 or more sugar units Ex:
Starch (energy storage in plants)
Glycogen (how animals store sugar in liver)
Cellulose (plant cell walls)
Chitin (insect exoskeletons)

43. Combining molecules by removing water
Simple sugars form into complex sugars by dehydration synthesis (condensation).
Combining molecules by removing water
Monosac. + Monosac.  Disac. + Water
C6H12O C6H12O6  C12H22O H2O

45. and H2O

47. Complex sugars are broken down into simple sugars by hydrolysis.
Breaking down molecules by adding water
Also called chemical digestion
Disac.+ Water  Monosac. + Monosac.
C12H22O H2O  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

49. Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis are OPPOSITE Reactions

50. **Chemical reactions are often enzyme mediated.

51. Lipids Fats, oils and waxes FUNCTION:
Long term energy storage
Insulation
Protective coating around cells
Cell membranes
Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Ratio of H to O is not 2:1
Ex: C15H26O6 (fewer oxygens)

52. Animals store energy mostly as fats
Plants store energy mostly as oils

53. Lipids Made up of: 1 glycerol molecule 3 long fatty acid chains
Looks like a giant letter “E”
Also called a “triglyceride”

54. GLYCEROL FATTY ACID CHAIN Note: 3 “OH” groups Note:
CARBOXYL GROUP: “COOH” group at end of molecule

55. Basic Lipid Structure

56. Lipids are:
formed by dehydration synthesis
broken down by hydrolysis

58. Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
all single bonds between carbon atoms
Unsaturated:
One or more double bonds between carbon atoms
Makes fatty acid more bent

60. Proteins Protein Structure:
Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and NITROGEN
Large complex polymer molecules that can have a large range of sizes, shapes and properties

61. Proteins FUNCTIONS: Enzymes: speed up chemical reactions
Hormones: chemical messengers
Antibodies: defend against disease
Hemoglobin: binds oxygen to red blood cells
Cell growth and repair
Cell Membrane Channels

62. Amino Acid: basic building block of proteins

63. Parts of an Amino Acid Carboxylic Acid Group Amino Group
“R”-Group (varies depending on amino acid)

64. Examples of Different Amino Acids
There are 20 different amino acids
All have different “R” groups

65. Peptide Bond: bond between amino acids
Dipeptide: two amino acids joined.
Polypeptide: many amino acids joined
Proteins are polypeptides

66. Forming a Peptide Bond

67. and H2O

68. + H2O

69. Amino acids join up to form proteins at ribosome
The function of the protein comes from it’s specific sequence of amino acids and the shape the protein forms
The “code” for the specific sequence of amino acids comes from DNA

70. Nucleic Acids Large complex macromolecule Stores information in “code”
Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus

71. Structure of Nucleic Acids: Made of chains of nucleotides
Nucleotide: (made of 3 components)
Phosphate Group
Sugar
Nitrogenous Base

72. Two Types of Nucleic Acids
DNA: (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Contain genetic information
Found in nucleus
Divides when cell divides
RNA: (Ribonucleic Acid)
Copies code from DNA
Takes code to ribosomes for protein synthesis
Found in nucleus and cytoplasm

74. Differences Between DNA & RNA
Double strand of nucleotides
Sugar is deoxyribose
Nitrogenous Bases
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
RNA:
Single strand of nucleotides
Sugar is ribose
Nitrogenous bases
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine