1. 6.6 But acid rain can have pH levels lower than 4.3 – where is the extra acidity coming from? The most acidic rain falls in the eastern third of the United States, with the region of lowest pH being roughly the states along the Ohio River valley. The extra acidity must be originating somewhere in this heavily industrialized part of the country.

2. 6.6 Analysis of rain for specific compounds confirms that the chief culprits are the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen: sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ), nitrogen monoxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). These compounds are collectively designated SO x and NO x and are often referred to as “Sox and Nox.”

3. 6.6 Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are acid anhydrides, literally “acids without water.” SO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) H 2 SO 3 (aq) sulfurous acid SO 3 (g) + H 2 O(l) H 2 SO 4 (aq) sulfuric acid And then: H 2 SO 4 (aq) 2 H + (aq) + SO 4 2– (aq) SO x react with water to form acids:

4. 6.6 4 NO 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(l) + O 2 (g) 4 HNO 3 (aq) nitric acid Like sulfuric acid, nitric acid also dissociates to release the H + ion: HNO 3 (aq) H + (aq) + NO 3 – (aq) What about the NO x ?

5. 6.7 Sulfur dioxide emissions are highest in regions with many coal- fired electric power plants, steel mills, and other heavy industries that rely on coal. Allegheny County, in western Pennsylvania, is just such an area, and in 1990 it led the United States in atmospheric SO 2 concentration.

6. 6.7 How does the sulfur get into the atmosphere? The burning of coal. Coal contains 1–3% sulfur and coal burning power plants usually burn about 1 million metric tons of coal a year! S(s) + O 2 (g) SO 2 (g) 2 SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2 SO 3 (g) Once in the air, the SO 2 can react with oxygen molecules to form sulfur trioxide, which acts in the formation of aerosols. Burning of sulfur with oxygen produces sulfur dioxide gas, which is poisonous.

7. The highest NO x emissions are generally found in states with large urban areas, high population density, and heavy automobile traffic. Therefore, it is not surprising that the highest levels of atmospheric NO 2 are measured over Los Angeles County, the car capital of the country. 6.8 Nitrogen dioxide gas in the atmosphere reacts with the hydroxyl radical to form nitric acid. NO 2 (g) + · OH(g) → HNO 3 (l)

8. 6.9 Plants need nitrogen in a chemical form that reacts more easily, such as the ammonium ion, ammonia, or the nitrate ion, in order to grow. Simplified Nitrogen Cycle

9. 6.9 Bacteria do not provide enough reactive nitrogen to supply the world with food, so synthetic fertilizers must be added. Haber-Bosch process for large scale fertilizer production: N 2 (g) + H 2 (g) → 2 NH 3 (g)

10. 6.10 Emissions of NO x and SO 2 in the U.S.

11. 6.11 Effects of acid rain: rusting metal Iron metal dissolves when exposed to hydrogen ions: 4 Fe(s) + 2 O 2 (g) + 8 H + (aq) → 4 Fe 2+ (aq) + 4 H 2 O(l) Now the aqueous Fe 2+ ions react with oxygen to form rust (Fe 2 O 3 ): 4 Fe 2+ (aq) + O 2 (g) + 4 H 2 O(l) → 2 Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 8 H + (aq) Billions of dollars are spent annually to protect bridges, cars, buildings, and ships from the reactions above.

12. 6.11 Effects of acid rain: damage to marble 1944 At present These statues are made of marble, a form of limestone composed mainly of calcium carbonate, CaCO 3. Limestone and marble slowly dissolve in the presence of H + ions: CaCO 3 (s) + 2 H + (aq) Ca 2+ (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O(l)

13. 6.12 “They stop at Overlooks, idling their engines as they read signs describing Shenandoah’s ruggedly scenic terrain: Hogback, Little Devil Stairs, Old Rag, Hawksbill. Jammed along the narrow road, the cars and motor homes add to the miasmic summer haze that cloaks the hills.” Ned Burks, Environmental writer describing Skyline Drive in Virginia

14. 6.13 Effects of acid rain: damage to lakes and streams