1. Chapter 8 Training and Development 1. Training vs. Development. 2. Importance of Training. 3. Types of Training. 4. Training Process Model. 5. Learning Principles. 6. Training Methods.

2. 1. Difference Between Training Training focuses on specific job knowledge and skill that is to be applied in the short run. Development focuses on broad knowledge and insights that may be required for adaptation to environmental demands in the future. 1. Training vs. Development (Figure 8.1)

3. 1. Respond to technology changes affecting job requirements. 2. Respond to organizational restructuring. 3. Adapt to increased diversity of the workforce. 4. Support career development. 5. Fulfill employee need for growth. 2. Importance of Training

4. Examples of Training Investments  Industry and government in the United States spend approximately $90 billion each year on employee training and education.  Average U. S. company spends about 1.4% of budget on training compared to 5% for German companies and 6% for Japanese companies.  Study of major automobile manufactures found U. S automakers spend about 40 hours training new employees compared to 300 hours for Japanese and German automakers.  In early 1980s, Motorola’s CEO required all divisions to spend at least 2% of budget on training. Over next 7 years, profits increased 47% and it was estimated that each $1.00 in training yielded $30.00 in return.

5. 3. Types of Training 1. Skills Training. 2. Retraining. 3. Cross-Functional. 4. Team Training. 5. Creativity Training. 6. Literacy Training. 7. Diversity Training. 8. Customer Service. 3. Types of Training (pp. 275-282)

6. 1. SKILLS TRAINING Focus on job knowledge and skill for: Instructing new hires. Instructing new hires. Overcoming performance deficits of the workforce. Overcoming performance deficits of the workforce.

7. 2. Retraining Maintaining worker knowledge and skill as job requirements change due to: Technological innovation Technological innovation Organizational restructuring Organizational restructuring

8. 3. Cross-Functional Training Training employees to perform a wider variety of tasks in order to gain: Flexibility in work scheduling. Flexibility in work scheduling. Improved coordination. Improved coordination.

9. 4. Team Training Training self-directed teams with regard to: Management skills. Management skills. Coordination skills. Coordination skills. Cross-functional skills. Cross-functional skills.

10. 5. Creativity Training Using innovative learning techniques to enhance employee ability to spawn new ideas and new approaches.

11. Figure 8.8 Creativity Training Methods  Analogies and metaphors – Using comparisons and finding similarities.  Free Association – Freely thinking of words linked to specific problems can give insight.  Personal Analogy – Placing oneself as the source of a problem to gain insight.  Mind Mapping – Generating issues and drawing lines to identify relationships among the issues.

12. 6. Literacy Training Improving basic skills of the workforce such as mathematics, reading, writing, and effective employee behaviors such as punctuality, responsibility, cooperation,etc.

13. 7. Diversity Training Instituting a variety of programs to instill awareness, tolerance, respect, and acceptance of persons of different race, gender, etc. and different backgrounds.

14. 8. Customer Service Training Training to improve communication, better response to customer needs, and ways to enhance customer satisfaction.

15. I. Needs Assessment II. Developing & Conducting Training III. Evaluating Training 4. Training Process Model

16. I. Needs Assessment 1. Organizational Level 2. Job Level 3. Individual Level

17. 1. Organizational Level Sales and operating plans. Sales and operating plans. Productivity measures. Productivity measures. Technology change. Technology change. Organizational restructuring. Organizational restructuring. Change in workforce. Change in workforce.

18. 2. Job Level Job and task analysis. Job and task analysis. Identify KSAs. Identify KSAs. Review procedural and technical manuals. Review procedural and technical manuals. Design Training Program

19. 3. Individual Level Determine who needs training and what kind. Tests. Tests. Prior training and experience. Prior training and experience. Performance review. Performance review. Career assessment. Career assessment.

20. II. Developing and Conducting Training 1. Determine location and who will conduct the training. o Onsite facilities vs. offsite. o Inside training staff vs. outside vendors. 2. Develop training curricula. Based on job/task analysis and individual needs. 3. Select training methods. o Considering learning principles. o Consider appropriateness and cost.

21. III. Evaluating Training Effectiveness 1. Four levels of training effectiveness. 2. Four evaluation designs. 3. ROI – Return On Investment (See Figures 8.11 and 8.12). (See Figures 8.11 and 8.12).

22. Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation According to this model, evaluation should always begin with level one, and then, as time and budget allows, should move sequentially through levels two, three, and four. Information from each prior level serves as a base for the next level's evaluation. Thus, each successive level represents a more precise measure of the effectiveness of the training program, but at the same time requires a more rigorous and time- consuming analysis. 1

23. Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation. Four levels of training effectiveness. a. Level 1 Evaluation - Reactions (measures how participants in a training program react to it. It attempts to answer questions regarding the participants' perceptions - Did they like it? Was the material relevant to their work? ) b. Level 2 Evaluation - Learning (assess the amount of learning that has occurred due to a training program, level two evaluations often use tests conducted before training (pretest) and after training (post test) ) c. Level 3 Evaluation – Transfer (measures the transfer that has occurred in learners' behavior due to the training program. Evaluating at this level attempts to answer the question : Are the newly acquired skills, knowledge, or attitude are used in the everyday environment of the learner? ) d. Level 4 Evaluation- Results (measures the success of the program in terms of business results. Such as increased production, improved quality, decreased costs, reduced frequency of accidents, increased sales, and even higher profits or return on investment.)

24. Types of Evaluation Designs TrainMeasure Post Test Only: Cannot tell if there is a change in knowledge or skill. MeasureTrainMeasure Pre-test with Post-test: Detects a change, but cannot tell if training was responsible.

25. Types of Evaluation Designs Measure 2 Measure 1 Multiple Baseline Design: Compares trend in performance Before and After training. A significant change in the performance trend after the training indicates the possibility of a training effect. MeasureTrainMeasure 3 Measure 4 Measure 5 Measure 6

26. Types of Evaluation Designs Measure Scientific Method: Training Group and Control Group. Compare performance of Training Group and Control Group after training. If Training Group has higher performance, it can be attributed to a training effect. TrainMeasure No Train Measure

27. ReadinessPracticeFeedback 5. Learning Principles Transfer

28. I. Readiness 1. Assess trainee capability. 2. Assess interest and perceived relevance. 3. Enhance trainee motivation.

29. 1. Assess trainee capability – i.e., ability and current level of knowledge and skill – in order to insure success. Tests. Tests. Work sampling. Work sampling. Performance appraisals. Performance appraisals.

30. 2. Assess trainee interest and perceived relevance of training. 2. Assess trainee interest and perceived relevance of training. Employee surveys. Employee surveys. Career development programs. Career development programs. Performance appraisals. Performance appraisals.

31. 3. Insure motivation to learn through control of Expectancy Theory elements. Effort = E × I × V E-Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to success (i.e., learning). E-Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to success (i.e., learning). I-Instrumentality is the belief that success (i.e., learning) will lead to rewards. I-Instrumentality is the belief that success (i.e., learning) will lead to rewards. V-Valence is the value placed on rewards by the individual. V-Valence is the value placed on rewards by the individual.

32. Increasing Expectancy Match training design to trainee capability. Match training design to trainee capability. Enhance self-efficacy – role modeling, encouragement, inactive mastery, etc. Enhance self-efficacy – role modeling, encouragement, inactive mastery, etc. Increasing Instrumentality Indicate the link between training and (a) job success and (b) rewards - security, salary, promotions, etc. Indicate the link between training and (a) job success and (b) rewards - security, salary, promotions, etc.

33. Increasing Valence Valence (value of rewards) is largely an individual matter based on one’s personality and past experiences. Valence (value of rewards) is largely an individual matter based on one’s personality and past experiences. However, some studies have indicated that over the long-run, employees may come to value rewards that are consistently provided by the employer. However, some studies have indicated that over the long-run, employees may come to value rewards that are consistently provided by the employer. Bonuses, Promotions, Peer Relations, etc.

34. II. Conditions of Practice 1. Meaningfulness. 2. Active vs. Passive. 3. Individual Differences.

35. 1. Meaningfulness Refers to the characteristics of instructional concepts and tasks as being (a) comprehendible and (b) relevant to one’s past experiences (i.e., familiarity). Refers to the characteristics of instructional concepts and tasks as being (a) comprehendible and (b) relevant to one’s past experiences (i.e., familiarity).

36. Increasing Meaningfulness 1. Present concepts by using examples and illustrations that are related to the end use and trainee past experiences. Use multiple methods to enhance trainee attention. 2. Parts vs. Whole - Subdividing complex concepts and tasks into components and treating interrelated concepts and tasks as a whole. 3. Distributed vs. Massed - The more complex and extensive the learning task, the more time and repetition that will be needed.

37. 2. Active vs.Passive Allowing trainees to progress from covert responses to concepts and tasks (i.e., mental imaging) to overt responses (i.e., active practice) allows one to develop the proprioceptive cues necessary to react spontaneously to real life events. Allowing trainees to progress from covert responses to concepts and tasks (i.e., mental imaging) to overt responses (i.e., active practice) allows one to develop the proprioceptive cues necessary to react spontaneously to real life events. Active practice is particularly important for physical tasks and interpersonal communication. Active practice is particularly important for physical tasks and interpersonal communication.

38. 3. Individual Differences Studies of learning indicate that different individuals have different “learning curves” – i.e., advance at different speeds and use different learning styles. Implications of individuals differences to training: Use a variety of training methods. Use a variety of training methods. Provide feedback and encouragement at appropriate times. Provide feedback and encouragement at appropriate times.

39. III. Feedback 1. Information vs. Reinforcement. 2. Continuous vs. Variable. 3. External vs. Learner Controlled.

40. 1. Information vs. Reinforcement Information – Refers to critique of learning performance, such as test results, observations of performance, coaching, etc. Information – Refers to critique of learning performance, such as test results, observations of performance, coaching, etc. Reinforcement – Refers to rewards, punishment, or negative reinforcement. (Such as praise, responsibility, salary increase, job security, promotion, etc.) Reinforcement – Refers to rewards, punishment, or negative reinforcement. (Such as praise, responsibility, salary increase, job security, promotion, etc.)

41. 2. Continuous vs. Variable Continuous – It is important to provide relatively continuous feedback early in learning, to increase self-efficacy and motivation. Continuous – It is important to provide relatively continuous feedback early in learning, to increase self-efficacy and motivation. Variable – It is best to provide intermittent feedback as learners master concepts and tasks. (Feedback begins to be internally generated). Variable – It is best to provide intermittent feedback as learners master concepts and tasks. (Feedback begins to be internally generated).

42. 3. External vs. Learner Controlled External – Feedback provided by instructors or supervisors - is important in early stages of the learning process. External – Feedback provided by instructors or supervisors - is important in early stages of the learning process. Learner Controlled – Feedback resulting from active practice (I.e. task performance) such as computer-based instruction, simulators, or on-the-job. Learner Controlled – Feedback resulting from active practice (I.e. task performance) such as computer-based instruction, simulators, or on-the-job.

43. IV. Transfer Transfer refers to the trainee’s application of knowledge and skills gained in training on the job. It is affected by: Relevance and effectiveness of the training – readiness, practice, and feedback principles. Relevance and effectiveness of the training – readiness, practice, and feedback principles. Follow-up instruction and support. Follow-up instruction and support. Reinforcement to use new knowledge and skills. Reinforcement to use new knowledge and skills.

44. 6. Training Methods ClassroomVideo On-the-Job Computer Assisted Instruction Simulation CAI with Video

45. 1. Classroom Instruction Efficient dissemination of large volume of information. Efficient dissemination of large volume of information. Effective in explaining concepts, theories, and principles. Effective in explaining concepts, theories, and principles. Provides opportunity for discussion. Provides opportunity for discussion. Learner does not control pace or content Learner does not control pace or content Does not consider individual differences. Does not consider individual differences. Limited practice. Limited practice. Limited feedback. Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job. Limited transfer to job. PROSCONS

46. 2. Video and Film Provides realism. Provides realism. Adds interest. Adds interest. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Allows distribution to multiple sites. Allows distribution to multiple sites. Does not consider individual differences. Does not consider individual differences. Limited practice. Limited practice. Limited feedback. Limited feedback. Limited transfer to job. Limited transfer to job. PROSCONS

47. 3. Computer Assisted Instruction Efficient instruction. Efficient instruction. Considers individual differences. Considers individual differences. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows scheduling flexibility. Allows active practice for some tasks. Allows active practice for some tasks. Allows learner control. Allows learner control. Provides immediate feedback to tasks. Provides immediate feedback to tasks. Limited in presenting theories and principles. Limited in presenting theories and principles. Limited discussion. Limited discussion. Transfer depends on particular job. (Good for computer work.) Transfer depends on particular job. (Good for computer work.) High development cost (40-60 hours per hour of instruction at $100-$300 per hour.) High development cost (40-60 hours per hour of instruction at $100-$300 per hour.) PROSCONS

48. 4. Computer Assisted Instruction with Video Same as basic CAI. Same as basic CAI. Adds realism. Adds realism. Adds interest. Adds interest. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Same as basic CAI. Same as basic CAI. Adds additional cost. Adds additional cost. $50,000-$150,000 per hour of instruction due to: * Script writers * Script writers * Production specialists * Production specialists * Camera crews * Camera crews PROSCONS

49. 5. Simulation/Vestibule Provides realism. Provides realism. Allows active practice. Allows active practice. Provides immediate feedback. Provides immediate feedback. Allows exposure to hazardous events. Allows exposure to hazardous events. High transfer to job. High transfer to job. No job interference. No job interference. Lowers trainee stress. Lowers trainee stress. Cannot cover all job aspects. Cannot cover all job aspects. Limited number of trainees. Limited number of trainees. Can be very expensive (for example, “aircraft simulators” and “virtual reality” simulators). Can be very expensive (for example, “aircraft simulators” and “virtual reality” simulators). PROS CONS

50. 6. On-The-Job Training Provides realism. Provides realism. Allows active practice. Allows active practice. Provides immediate feedback. Provides immediate feedback. High motivation. High motivation. High transfer to job. High transfer to job. Lowers training cost. Lowers training cost. Disruptions to operations. Disruptions to operations. May damage equipment. May damage equipment. Inconsistent across departments. Inconsistent across departments. Inadequate focus on underlying principles. Inadequate focus on underlying principles. Lack of systematic feedback. Lack of systematic feedback. Transfer of improper procedures. Transfer of improper procedures. Trainee stress. Trainee stress. PROS CONS