1. 1 Dendroecological Techniques for Reconstructing the History of Wildfires in the Southern Appalachian Mountains Henri D. Grissino-Mayer 1 Charles W. Lafon 2 Georgina G. DeWeese 1 Lisa B. LaForest 1 Serena R. Aldrich 2 Henri D. Grissino-Mayer 1 Charles W. Lafon 2 Georgina G. DeWeese 1 Lisa B. LaForest 1 Serena R. Aldrich 2 1 1 2 2

2. Low Fuel Loadings Few Ladder Fuels Surface Fire Regime Low Severity Fires Stand Maintenance Fires High Fuel Loadings Increased Ladder Fuels Increased Stem Density Crown Fire Regime High Severity Fires Stand Replacement Fires © USDA Forest Service 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000… The “Western Model” where fire exclusion = increased fuels and increased fire danger But, in the eastern U.S., 20 th century fire exclusion could decrease potential for future wildfires.

6. Mill Mountain FS Road TMP stands on SW- facing slopes

7. Fire History: Four subsites per larger site Between 15-40 samples at each subsite Complete inventory regardless of the number of scars on the sample Concentration on logs, snags, remnants Over 600 trees sampled for fire history Fire History: Four subsites per larger site Between 15-40 samples at each subsite Complete inventory regardless of the number of scars on the sample Concentration on logs, snags, remnants Over 600 trees sampled for fire history

11. Stand History: Three 50 x 20 m “macroplots” per site Inventoried all tree species, measured dbh Cored, crossdated/aged all trees ≥ 5 cm dbh Inventoried all saplings 50 cm ht Inventoried seedlings in 10 x 20 m subplot Collected sections from 20 mountain laurel stems Measured depth to mineral soil at 20 random locations Stand History: Three 50 x 20 m “macroplots” per site Inventoried all tree species, measured dbh Cored, crossdated/aged all trees ≥ 5 cm dbh Inventoried all saplings 50 cm ht Inventoried seedlings in 10 x 20 m subplot Collected sections from 20 mountain laurel stems Measured depth to mineral soil at 20 random locations Pines Oaks Mountain Other laurel hardwoods 20 m 50 m

13. A section from a fire- scarred Table Mountain pine snag. How many fire scars can you see here? Initial in-field visual inspection most often underestimates true amount of fire history info per sample. Note that TMP is a very slow-growing tree species (xeric sites, lithic/poor soils, time in understory). Note issues we face when attempting to date the tree rings on each sample.

14. TMP can be very young and very small in size when first scarred. At Mill Mountain, median age at first scarring = 16 years, median diameter at first scarring = 6.7 cm.

15. TMP sampled at Kelly Mountain in 2005 near Blue Ridge Parkway, displaying an incredible sequence of fire scars. Initial in-field inspection estimated 6 or 7 possible fire scars. Final tally: 11 scars

16. Interpreting Fire History Charts Years on x-axis Period of Reliability: 1896 to 1944 Each line = 1 treeSample IDs Composite axis Solid lines = recorder years Each tic = fire scar Dash lines = non-recorder years Begin/end symbology

17. Interpreting Fire Regimes Central Tendency – Weibull Median Probability Interval (MEI) Variability – are intervals even? UEI, LEI = range Seasonality – season is very important Early Season = DE Late Season = MLA Severity – are cohorts visible? All scarred and 10% scarred classes

18. Brush Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1758–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 8 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 8 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 19 yrs 90% DE fires, 10% MLA fires Brush Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1758–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 8 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 8 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 19 yrs 90% DE fires, 10% MLA fires

19. North Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1779–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 6 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 7 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 15 yrs 84% DE fires, 16% MLA fires North Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1779–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 6 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 7 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 15 yrs 84% DE fires, 16% MLA fires

20. Griffith Knob Fire History Period of Reliability: 1810–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 2 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 4 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 4 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 12 yrs 72% DE fires, 28% MLA fires Griffith Knob Fire History Period of Reliability: 1810–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 2 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 4 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 4 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 12 yrs 72% DE fires, 28% MLA fires

21. Little Walker Fire History Period of Reliability: 1789–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 5 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 4 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 8 yrs 79% DE fires, 21% MLA fires Little Walker Fire History Period of Reliability: 1789–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 3 yrs; LEI: 1 yr; UEI: 5 yrs 10%-scarred class: MEI: 4 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 8 yrs 79% DE fires, 21% MLA fires

22. Mill Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1740–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 5 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 9 yrs 10% scarred class: MEI: 7 yrs; LEI: 3 yrs; UEI: 15 yrs 90% DE fires, 10% MLA fires Mill Mountain Fire History Period of Reliability: 1740–1934 All-scarred class: MEI: 5 yrs; LEI: 2 yrs; UEI: 9 yrs 10% scarred class: MEI: 7 yrs; LEI: 3 yrs; UEI: 15 yrs 90% DE fires, 10% MLA fires

23. Species Basal Area (stems/ha) FrequencyDensityDominance Relative Frequency (%) Relative Density (%) Relative Dominance (%) Importance Value (%) Acer rubrum 99.702.3323.3383.082.552.670.811.51 Castanea dentata < 0.0010.171.70< 0.0010.740.190.0010.23 Nyssa sylvatica 252.0116.33163.33210.0017.2217.787.7514.25 Pinus pungens 1599.5037.33373.331332.9238.6337.7155.7544.03 Pinus rigida < 0.0010.080.83< 0.0010.09 0.0020.047 Pinus strobus 277.802.5825.83231.503.533.542.212.32 Pinus virginiana 0.0030.838.330.0030.860.880.040.45 Robinia pseudoacacia < 0.0010.080.83< 0.0010.360.09< 0.0010.11 Quercus alba < 0.0010.585.83< 0.0010.65 0.020.33 Quercus coccinea 118.407.9279.1798.678.107.542.215.95 Quercus montana 653.3824.58245.83544.4924.5926.0229.5726.73 Quercus rubra 144.302.5025.00120.252.982.071.632.22 Quercus velutina 0.0030.505.000.0030.700.540.020.31

24. Saplings Species Brush Mountain Griffith Knob Little Walker Mountain North Mountain TotalPercent Acer rubrum1281346797.14 Carya glabra020020.18 Castanea dentata125190.81 Fagus grandifolia000000.00 Nyssa sylvatica9553533847342.77 Pinus pungens513192923721.43 Pinus rigida020020.18 Pinus strobus118430625.61 Pinus virginiana01600 1.45 Quercus alba17110191.72 Quercus coccinea099101009.04 Quercus montana44039474.25 Quercus rubra31161211.90 Quercus velutina00151161.45 Robinia pseudoacacia04150191.72 Tsuga canadensis031040.36

25. Species Brush Mountain Griffith Knob Little Walker Mountain North Mountain TotalPercent Acer rubrum4426507319323.74 Carya glabra02200 2.71 Castanea dentata0172101.23 Fagus grandifolia010010.12 Nyssa sylvatica70436475.78 Pinus pungens0850131.60 Pinus rigida030030.40 Pinus strobus011020.25 Pinus virginiana050050.62 Quercus alba01701182.21 Quercus coccinea8390519812.05 Quercus montana15035361023128.41 Quercus rubra7948811714.39 Quercus velutina54500506.15 Robinia pseudoacacia003030.37 Tsuga canadensis000000.00 Seedlings

26. Mountain Laurel: Brush Mountain Mountain Laurel: North Mountain

27. Previous studies found that a duff layer of 1.5 to 3 inches is sufficient for successful Table Mountain pine regeneration. Surprisingly, we found average duff (+litter) depths to be about 3 to 3.5 inches at all sites, with maximum values between 6 and 7.5 inches.

28. What about hardwoods? We found many fire- scarred hardwoods, but these proved very difficult to analyze. Advanced decay Erratic ring patterns Difficult to crossdate

29. Conclusions Past fire regimes: Fires were very frequent, once every 2 to 3 yrs Range: shortest interval = 1 yr, longest = 8 yrs Potentially widespread fires, once every 4 to 8 yrs Range: shortest interval = 1 yr, longest = 18 yrs In general, these fires were low severity fires. Cohorts evident in age structure and fire history analyses, indicating moderate severity fires. Dominated by dormant season and early growing season fires.

30. Stand composition: Current overstory dominated by chestnut oak, Table Mountain pine, and black gum Sapling composition dominated by black gum and Table Mountain pine Seedling composition dominated by oaks and red maple, with very few Table Mountain pines Future stands likely will be dominated by black gum, oaks, and red maple, with very few Table Mountain pines Conclusions

31. Moving to the south: Great Smoky Mountains National Park Builds upon the work of Mark Harmon, Tom Waldrop, and Pat Brose Gold Mine Trail, Cooper Road Trail, and Rabbit Creek Trail, all on west side of park Dominated by shortleaf and Virginia pines, many with fire scars. Moving to the south: Great Smoky Mountains National Park Builds upon the work of Mark Harmon, Tom Waldrop, and Pat Brose Gold Mine Trail, Cooper Road Trail, and Rabbit Creek Trail, all on west side of park Dominated by shortleaf and Virginia pines, many with fire scars.

32. A truly surprising find: actually locating in the field two of Harmon’s original samples taken in 1981. With a hand saw, no less. A truly surprising find: actually locating in the field two of Harmon’s original samples taken in 1981. With a hand saw, no less.

37. fire, fire, fire, fire And the lack thereof = the 20 th century “curl” 1804 1900

38. Preliminary fire history for Gold Mine Trail Very patchy fire regime Only one major widespread fire in 1929 This 1929 event was also the last major fire event as seen in the fire chart. Older samples will push the fire inventory back to the late 1700s.

39. University of Tennessee Henri Grissino-Mayer Georgina DeWeese Lisa LaForest David Mann Alison Miller Evan Larson Daniel Lewis Saskia van de Gevel Chris Underwood Beth Atchley Michelle Pfeffer Nathaniel Morgan Anna Compton Ashley Heaton Preston Roberts Pamela Dalal Jessica Brodgen Wayne Clatterbuck Tim Green University of Tennessee Henri Grissino-Mayer Georgina DeWeese Lisa LaForest David Mann Alison Miller Evan Larson Daniel Lewis Saskia van de Gevel Chris Underwood Beth Atchley Michelle Pfeffer Nathaniel Morgan Anna Compton Ashley Heaton Preston Roberts Pamela Dalal Jessica Brodgen Wayne Clatterbuck Tim Green Texas A&M University Charles Lafon Serena Aldrich Adam Krustchinsky Paul Rindfleisch Alexis Green Jennifer Hoss John Aldrich Kirk Stueve Lauren Spencer Jeremiah Wagstaff James Dalton The Nature Conservancy Judy Dunscomb Wanda SanJule Jennifer Allen Virginia Department of Game & Inland Fisheries Nelson Lafon Texas A&M University Charles Lafon Serena Aldrich Adam Krustchinsky Paul Rindfleisch Alexis Green Jennifer Hoss John Aldrich Kirk Stueve Lauren Spencer Jeremiah Wagstaff James Dalton The Nature Conservancy Judy Dunscomb Wanda SanJule Jennifer Allen Virginia Department of Game & Inland Fisheries Nelson Lafon USDA Forest Service Steven Croy Elaine Kennedy Sutherland Beth Buchanan Jesse Overcash Carol Hardy Croy George Annis Danny Wright Butch Shaw Herbie Huffman Kenneth Hickman Jason Hattersley Zack Pennington Mitch Kerr West Virginia University Stockton Maxwell USDA Forest Service Steven Croy Elaine Kennedy Sutherland Beth Buchanan Jesse Overcash Carol Hardy Croy George Annis Danny Wright Butch Shaw Herbie Huffman Kenneth Hickman Jason Hattersley Zack Pennington Mitch Kerr West Virginia University Stockton Maxwell Personnel

40. A Very Special Thank You to Michelle Pfeffer 1981–2006