2. Rhetorical Analysis A Ladder Approach to Text Analysis

3. The ladder is leaning up against my house… Exigency Audience Purpose Appeals Ethos Pathos Logos Tropes Scheme Big Picture Foundation Ethos Pathos Logos

4. Exigency A need or lack of something that needs doing.

5. Audience Reader or group of readers capable of acting on this exigency. Primary Secondary

6. Purpose What the author intends for the reader (s) to do while and after they read the text. Action, change minds, clarify, informative—Never singular

7. Appeals 1. Ethos—Appeals to the character of the writer or persona.

8. Appeals--Ethos a. Good Will Do they have you on their side?

9. Appeals--Ethos b. Good character Yes, I can trust this person

10. Appeals--Ethos c. Good sense Have they done their homework?

11. “What is an Essay?” Ethos: Fallacy Ad Hominem (p. 26)

12. Appeals--Pathos Appeals to emotions or interest of readers Self-interest

13. “What is an Essay?” Pathos: Fallacies Bandwagon (p. 30) Appeal to Tradition (p.31) Appeal to Pity (p. 31)

14. Appeals--Logos Appeals to the structure of an argument Body of text/structure

15. Appeals--Logos Syllogism Minor premise Major premise (fact ) Conclusion Transitive Property A=b and b=c :.a=c

16. Appeals--Logos Enthymeme A syllogism in which the major premise is an assumption that the audience may already believe Frequently unstated existing tacitly in argument Minor Premise Major Premise (often assumed) Conclusion

17. Appeals--Logos Toulmin’s Informal Structure Type of enthymeme on its side (same as an enthymeme, but now in a diagram format with new terms) DATA/GROUND (Minor Premise) Warrant or Bridge (Major Premise) Claim (Conclusion)

18. Toulmin http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~digger/305/toulmin_model.htm Data/Ground: reasons or supporting evidence that bolster the claim. Warrant: the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim of the argument. Claim: the position or claim being argued for; the conclusion (Actually has 6 parts, but we concentrate on 3.)

19. Paradigms Pattern of examples Repeated and often historical

20. Common Warrants http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~digger/305/toulmin_model.htm There are 6 main argumentative strategies via which the relationship between evidence and claim are often established. They have the acronym “GASCAP.” Generalization (Inductive Fallacy) Analogy (Inductive Fallacy) Sign Causality (Deductive Fallacy) Authority Principle

21. Common Warrants http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~digger/305/toulmin_model.htm These strategies are used at various different levels of generality within an argument, and rarely come in neat packages - typically they are interconnected and work in combination. 1. Argument based on Generalization A very common form of reasoning. It assumes that what is true of a well chosen sample is likely to hold for a larger group or population, or that certain things consistent with the sample can be inferred of the group/population.

22. 2. Argument based on Analogy Extrapolating from one situation or event based on the nature and outcome of a similar situation or event. Has links to 'case-based' and precedent-based reasoning used in legal discourse. What is important here is the extent to which relevant similarities can be established between 2 contexts. Are there sufficient, typical, accurate, relevant similarities?

23. 3. Argument via Sign/Clue The notion that certain types of evidence are symptomatic of some wider principle or outcome. For example, smoke is often considered a sign for fire. Some people think high SAT scores are a sign a person is smart and will do well in college.

24. 4. Causal Argument Arguing that a given occurrence or event is the result of, or is effected by, factor X. Causal reasoning is the most complex of the different forms of warrant. The big dangers with it are: Mixing up correlation with causation Falling into the post hoc, ergo propter hoc trap. Closely related to confusing correlation and causation, this involves inferring 'after the fact, therefore because of the fact').

25. 5. Argument from Authority Does person X or text X constitute an authoritative source on the issue in question? What political, ideological or economic interests does the authority have? Is this the sort of issue in which a significant number of authorities are likely to agree on?

26. 6. Argument from Principle Locating a principle that is widely regarded as valid and showing that a situation exists in which this principle applies. Evaluation: Is the principle widely accepted? Does it accurately apply to the situation in question? Are there commonly agreed on exceptions? Are there 'rival' principles that lead to a different claim? Are the practical consequences of following the principle sufficiently desirable?

27. “What is an Essay?” Logos: Valid v Sound Argument (p. 16-17) Deductive v Inductive Reasoning (p. 16) Deductive Fallacies non sequitur (p. 21) Red Herring (p. 22) False cause (GASCAP) (p. 23) Begging the Questions (p. 24) Either or Fallacy (p. 24)

28. “What is an Essay?” Logos: Inductive Fallacies Hasty Generalization (GASCAP) (p. 25) Anecdotal Evidence (p. 25) False Analogy (GASCAP) (p. 25) Special Pleading (p. 26)

29. Schemes and Tropes Scheme=Variation of norm words and sentences Trope=Variations from idea construction (Ideation)

30. Schemes Schemes of words Prosthesis Epenthesis Proparalepsis Aphaeresis Syncope Apocope Metathesis Antisthecon

31. Schemes of construction Schemes of balance Parallelism Antithesis

32. Schemes of unusual or inverted word order Hyperbaton Anastrophe Parenthesis Apposition

33. Schemes of Omission Ellipsis Asyndeton

34. Schemes of Repetition Alliteration Assonance Anaphora Epistrophe Analeptic Anadiplosis Climax Antimetabole Polytoton

35. Tropes Metaphor Paronomasia Simile Metonymy Synecdoche Antanaclasis Syllepsis Puns

36. Tropes Puns Antanaclasis Paronomasia Syllepsis

37. Tropes Anthimeria Periphrasis Personification Hyperbole Litotes

38. Tropes Rhetorical question Irony Onomatopoeia Oxymoron

39. Top Down=Big Picture Exigency Purpose Audience

40. Middle Up or Down Appeals

41. Bottom Up Schemes and Tropes

42. Exigency Audience Purpose Appeals Schemes & Tropes Top Down Middle Up or Down Bottom Up