1. Solutions Ask a chemist, they always have

3. Definitions  Mixture: several pure substances mixed together in an indefinite ratio Homogeneous Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous  Solution: a homogenous mixture that form when one or more substances dissolve into another.  Suspensions: cloudy mixtures that form when two or more substances mix but do not dissolve.  Emulsions: suspension of 2 liquids

4. Solutes and Solvents  Solution: a homogenous mixture  Solute: thing that dissolves  Solvent: thing that does the dissolving (found in the largest amounts) If the solvent is water, then it is called an aqueous solution If the solvent is water, then it is called an aqueous solution

5. Solubility  Example: iced tea Solute Solute sugar sugar tea tea Solvent Solvent water water

6. Solubility: Ionic Compounds  Ions form, separate (dissociate) and move throughout the solution The forces that hold the ions together are overcome by the ions’ attractions to polar water. The forces that hold the ions together are overcome by the ions’ attractions to polar water. Ion- dipole interactionIon- dipole interaction  Because ions are present, ionic solutions can conduct a current Current is just movement of electrons Current is just movement of electrons

7. Figure 15.1: Dissolving of solid sodium chloride. Solvation animation Animation with Audio

8. Figure 15.2: Polar water molecules interacting with positive and negative ions of a salt.

9.  “Like dissolves like”  Typically, hydrogen bonding occurs between the substance being dissolved and the polar water molecules  Example: Sugar in water Sugar in water Ethanol in water Ethanol in water Solubility: Polar Compounds

10. Figure 15.3: The polar water molecule interacts strongly with the polar O—H bond in ethanol.

11. Figure 15.4: Structure of common table sugar. Get interactions between water molecules the polar regions on the sugar (the Os), and some hydrogen bonding at the -OH groups

12. “They go together like oil and water.” (things that don’t dissolve or mix)  Anything nonpolar will not mix well with anything polar Examples: Oil spill Salad dressing  Can mix when shaken (LDF) and then may separate out (other forces)

13. How much is too much?  There is a limit to the amount of a substance dissolved Saturated : the solution holds as much solute as possible at that temperature. Saturated : the solution holds as much solute as possible at that temperature. Unsaturated : solution has not reached the limit Unsaturated : solution has not reached the limit

14.  Can you have too much? YES! Supersaturated: have as much solute dissolved as possible, then cooled and all the solute stays dissolved. Supersaturated: have as much solute dissolved as possible, then cooled and all the solute stays dissolved. In other words…the solution contains more dissolved solid than a saturated solution created at the same temperature. In other words…the solution contains more dissolved solid than a saturated solution created at the same temperature. These can begin crystallization of the solute at the slightest change These can begin crystallization of the solute at the slightest change

15. Energy changes and Solvation  Any chemical change (including solvation) requires a change in energy Energy removed from or added to the reactants from the surroundings Energy removed from or added to the reactants from the surroundings NaOH (s)  Na + (aq) + OH - (aq) ΔH= -44.5 kJ/mol NaOH (s)  Na + (aq) + OH - (aq) ΔH= -44.5 kJ/mol (that’s 44.5kJ released, so exothermic, per mole of NaOH) Because you are breaking the ionic bond, energy must be either released when breaking the bond, or consumed when making the new ionsBecause you are breaking the ionic bond, energy must be either released when breaking the bond, or consumed when making the new ions ALL changes in formula indicate a change in energy. ALL changes in formula indicate a change in energy. However, sometimes the energy change is so small, you can’t tell that a change has occurred However, sometimes the energy change is so small, you can’t tell that a change has occurred

16. Why some coffees “Put hair on your chest.”  “Strong” coffee has more coffee dissolved in a given amount (say 1 pot) than “weak” coffee. Strong coffee = concentrated Weak coffee = dilute  Concentration: the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent (or solution).

17. Molarity ( M )  Most common way to express concentration  Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in each liter of solution  Formula M = moles of solute M = moles of solute liters of solution liters of solution  Dependent on temperature  The higher the molarity the stronger the concentration

18. Molality ( M )  Another way to calculate concentration  Formula M = moles solute. M = moles solute. kilograms of solvent  Not dependent on temperature  The higher the molality the stronger the concentration

19. Colligative properties  In the winter, why do we throw salt when it snows?  Why does Emeril add salt to boiling water when cooking pasta?

20. Freezing point depression By adding salt (or other solutes) to water, the temperature of freezing drops  it freezes at a lower temperature By adding salt (or other solutes) to water, the temperature of freezing drops  it freezes at a lower temperature Because H bonding is disturbedBecause H bonding is disturbed Dependent on how much solute is addedDependent on how much solute is added

21. Freezing Point Depression Calcs  Antifreeze protects cars from freezing and overheating. Calculate the freezing point depression of a solution of 100. g of ethylene glycol (C 2 H 6 O 2 ) antifreeze in 0.500 kg of water. K f water = 1.86 o C/ m  Formula: T f = K f m i T f = K f m i  K f : Molal Freezing Point depression constant ( o C/ m )  i= Pieces that the material dissociates into (for ionic compounds only)  (Keep I at 1 (one) for covalent compounds)

22. Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation SolventFormula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) K f (°C/m) K b (°C/m) WaterH2OH2O0.000100.0001.8580.521 Acetic acidHC 2 H 3 O 2 16.60118.53.593.08 BenzeneC6H6C6H6 5.45580.25.0652.61 CamphorC 10 H 16 O179.5...40... Carbon disulfideCS 2...46.3...2.40 CyclohexaneC 6 H 12 6.5580.7420.02.79 EthanolC 2 H 5 OH...78.3...1.07

23. Boiling point elevation By adding salt (or other compounds) to water, the temperature of boiling goes up  it boils at a higher temperature By adding salt (or other compounds) to water, the temperature of boiling goes up  it boils at a higher temperature Interrupts H bondingInterrupts H bonding Need more vapor molecules and greater pressure to get bubbles to formNeed more vapor molecules and greater pressure to get bubbles to form Takes more time to get vapors to add to bubblesTakes more time to get vapors to add to bubbles The molecules that do get into the bubbles need more energyThe molecules that do get into the bubbles need more energy Dependent on how much solute is added Dependent on how much solute is added

24. Boiling Point Elevation Calculations  Water with salt added boils at a higher temperature than pure water. By how much will the boiling point change if 100.g of salt is added to 500. g of water? K b water = 0.52 o C/ m  Formula: T b = K b m i T b = K b m i  K b : Molal Boiling Point elevation constant ( o C/ m )  i= = Pieces that the material dissociates into (for ionic compounds only)  (Keep I at 1 (one) for covalent compounds)

25. Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation SolventFormula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) K f (°C/m ) ( K b (°C/ m) WaterH2OH2O0.000100.0001.8580.521 Acetic acidHC 2 H 3 O 2 16.60118.53.593.08 BenzeneC6H6C6H6 5.45580.25.0652.61 CamphorC 10 H 16 O179.5...40... Carbon disulfideCS 2...46.3...2.40 CyclohexaneC 6 H 12 6.5580.7420.02.79 EthanolC 2 H 5 OH...78.3...1.07

26. Figure 15.10: Pure water.

27. Figure 15.9: A bubble in the interior of liquid water surrounded by solute particles and water molecules.

28. Figure 15.10: Solution (contains solute).

29. Vapor Pressure Reduction  Vapor pressure changes as IMFs change  For the same reasons boiling point is disturbed  What would evaporate faster: Salt water Salt water Distilled water Distilled water WHY? WHY?

30.  Colligative properties interactive Colligative properties interactive Colligative properties interactive