1. Chapter 3: The Making of Males and Females in Contemporary Kisii

2. Introduction  Kisii: Initiation rituals shape gender identities  Argument: Key values associated with initiation rituals contradict reality of gendered relations

3. Initiation rituals  Rites de passage Transition (status/gendered identity) Becoming male/female adults Resolving of psycho-sexual conflict Male control over female reproductive powers

4. Initiation in Kisii  Traditionally preparation for marriage Parents transfer responsibility of sexual regulation and mate selection Peers offer support and guidance

5. Initiation in Kisii  Age has dropped drastically: Girls 8 -10 years old Boys even younger

6. Initiation in Kisii  Virtually all women in Kisii are circumcised (Daily Nation [1994]: 98%)  Uncircumcised women: Will not find husband Social stigma Not “decent“ – “If a woman has not been circumcised, she will become loose“ (61)

7. The ritual of clitoridectomy  Circumciser removes part or whole of the clitoris Clitoris is “aggressive“ Masculine element Threatens the male organ Removal ensures femininity and sexual control

8. The ritual of clitoridectomy  Girls and boys are separated  Girls spend the night with their sponsors  Mothers accompany girls

9. The ritual of clitoridectomy  Operation is performed by circumciser  Removal of clitoris (or parts)  Seclusion period of 3 weeks

10. The ritual of clitoridectomy  Mothers scream, shout obscenities, ululate and dance  Singing of songs with sexual content  Mocking of men  Expression of “usually concealed sexual lust and [women‘s] antagonism towards men“ (64)

11. Key values connected to female initiation  Girl becomes adult woman  Girl becomes “accessible“ for men and marriageable

12. Key values connected to female initiation  Obligations after initiation: To find a husband To be fertile and bear children To work hard Be attentive to her husband‘s needs and help in-laws Control her sexual behavior

13. Circumcision of boys  Hazing during seclusion period (2 -3 weeks)  Boys stand up during operation  Spears and clubs are pointed at boys  Tough disciplining before and after operation

14. Key values linked to circumcision of boys  Introduction to responsible adult life Responsibility Discipline Respect Self-reliance Kinship duties Courage

15. Key values linked to circumcision of boys  But respect and discipline does not include women Women become sexual objects  Masculinity: Command over women Sexual control

16. Differences and contradictions in girls‘ and boys‘ initiation  Emphasis for boys: Self-reliance Do without parental support Endure hardship and pain Cooperate with age mates Use of weapons Respect for parents and elders

17. Differences and contradictions in girls‘ and boys‘ initiation  Emphasis for girls: Sexual control Augmentation of sexual attractiveness Decreased consideration of parents‘ wishes Submission to men

18. Differences and contradictions in girls‘ and boys‘ initiation  However: Mothers show disrespect, protest and control Traditionally girls teased newly circumcised boys -> Acceptable protest against subordinate role

19. Gender identity, social value and antagonism  Initiation: Entry into sexual world Shapes and manifests gendered identity differences -> Greater variety of responsibilities for men

20. Gender identity, social value and antagonism  For men: Increased self-reliance and kinship duties  For women: Spatial removal from birth relations Movement into the male space Control over sexual and fertility behavior

21. Gender identity, social value and antagonism  Men preoccupied with control of male and female fertility  Initiation rites suggest that women control male and female fertility

22. Gender identity, social value and antagonism “[There] are profound discrepancies between the social roles and values contained in the rituals and women‘s and in particular men‘s ability to perform their social roles and live up to these values in contemporary Kisii“ (74)

23. Questions