1. Periodic Law

2. Periodic Table
Prior to 1860 no agreement/method to accurately determine masses of atoms.
First International Congress of Chemists – 1860
Stanislao Cannizzaro presented method for accurately measuring atomic masses
Looked for relationships between atomic masses and other properties of elements

3. First tables arranged elements by atomic weight
Could not agree on atomic weights therefore tables were different

4. John Newlands
Noticed elements properties repeated every 8th element when arranged by atomic mass
Named this phenomenon “the Law of Octaves”
Did not work for all elements

6. Julius Lothar Meyer Developed first modern table
Consisted of 28 elements divided into 6 families
Families (groups) had similar chemical and physical properties
Discovered all elements in same family had same number of valence e- -- outermost electrons in highest energy level
Why?

7. Dmitri Mendeleev
Noticed that properties repeat themselves at certain intervals
Arranged all known elements into one table based on properties– 1869
Proposed the “Periodic Law”
Based on the properties spaces were left for unknown elements (Sc, Ga, Ge)

9. Upon discovery of other elements inconsistencies were found with Mendeleev’s table
Atomic masses improved and they no longer arranged the elements by increasing atomic mass

10. Why can most elements be arranged by atomic mass?
What was the reason for chemical periodicity?

11. Henry Mosely
Discovered elements contain unique number of protons (atomic number)
Arranged elements by atomic number
Fully explained the Periodic Law

12. Periodic Law
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Aka – when elements are arranged by increasing atomic number, elements with similar properties appear at regular intervals.

13. Parts of the Periodic Table
Noble Gases – added to the table in 1894 after the discovery by Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsey
First discovered Argon while studying nitrogen
Later discovered Helium
Highly inert (unreactive) due to a full octet

14. Parts…. Alkali metals – group 1 Alkaline earth metals – group 2
Halogens – group 17
Transition metals – d block elements
Inner Transition metals
Lanthanides (elements 58-71) added in early 1900’s
Have very similar properties
Actinides (elements )

15. Electron Configuration & the Periodic Table

16. s-Block Elements Groups 1 & 2
All elements in group 1 & 2 will have an electron configuration of
ns1 or ns2 where n = highest energy level occupied

17. Alkali Metals Group 1 elements In the elemental state
Soft
Silvery metal
High melting points
Extremely reactive therefore are not found in elemental state in nature
React violently with water to produce hydrogen gas

18. Alkaline – Earth Metals
Group 2 elements
Outer most s orbital is full
Do not exhibit stability (outer p orbital is empty)
Properties
Harder, denser than group 1
Higher melting points than group 1
Not as reactive but too reactive to be found in nature in elemental form

19. Burning Mg

20. Hydrogen & Helium
H has same valence electrons as group 1 but does not share any other properties
He share same electron configuration (valence e-) as group 2 but does not share same properties
Placed with group 18 because it is very stable

21. d-block elements Transition elements Beginning filling the 3d orbitals
Good conductors of electricity
High luster
Less reactive than s-block elements
Can be found in elemental form

22. Exceptions in the d-block
The following elements have odd configurations
Cr: [Ar]4s13d5
Cu: [Ar]4s13d10
Ag: [Kr]5s14d10
More stable with half filled s & d orbitals or full d orbital
Exceptions follow throughout the d element similar to Chromium and Copper

23. p-block elements All elements in p block have a full s orbital
Properties
Contain all non metals except H & He
Contain all metalloids (exhibit properties of both metals and non metals)
Have semi conducting properties
Contains 6 metals
Elements in s & p block make up the representative elements

24. Halogens
Group 7A/17
Most reactive non metals (Fluorine is most reactive)
Will bond with a metal to form a salt
F & Cl are gases at room temp
Br is a liquid at room temp
I & At are solids at room temp

25. Periodic Trends

26. Octet Rule
Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons in order to have eight (8) valence electrons.
3 or less valence electrons – atom likely to lose electrons
6 or more valence electrons – atoms likely to gain electrons
4 or 5 valence electrons – atoms likely to share electrons

27. Periodic Trends
Properties of the elements change in a predictable manner across a period and down a group

28. Atomic Radius
The half distance between nuclei of identical atoms that are chemically bonded together

29. Atomic Radius Tends to decrease as you go across a period
Increase nuclear charge pulls electrons closer to the nucleus (decreasing radius) Zeff
Tends to increase as you go down a group
New electrons are placed in higher energy levels
Shielding: core electrons shield outer electrons from pull from nucleus

31. Ionic Radius
Ions – atom or bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge due to a loss/gain of electrons
Positive charge  lost electrons
Smaller ionic radius compared to anions
Negative charge  gained electrons
Larger ionic radius compared to cations

32. Ionic Radius Tends to decrease across a period
Tends to increase down a group

34. Ionic Radius vs. Atomic Radius
Metals - the atomic radius of a metal is generally larger than the ionic radius of the same element.
Why? Generally, metals loose electrons to achieve the octet. This creates a larger positive charge in the nucleus than the negative charge in the electron cloud, causing the electron cloud to be drawn a little closer to the nucleus as an ion.

35. Ionic Radius vs. Atomic Radius cont.
Non-metals - the atomic radius of a non-metal is generally smaller than the ionic radius of the same element.
Why? Generally, non-metals loose electrons to achieve the octet. This creates a larger negative charge in the electron cloud than positive charge in the nucleus, causing the electron cloud to 'puff out' a little bit as an ion. 

36. Ionic Radius vs. Atomic Radius

37. Ionization Energy
Energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom (J)
If an atom has a high ionization energy not likely to form a positive ion
Tends to increase across a period
Tends to decrease down a group

38. 1st Ionization Energy

39. Electronegativity
Relative ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond
Numerical value of 3.98 Paulings or less
Fluorine is the most electronegative
atoms positioned closer to F have higher electronegativies
Tends to increase across period
Tends to decrease down a group

40. Electronegativity

41. Reactivity vigorously an atom is to react with other substances.
Reactivity refers to how likely or
vigorously an atom is to react with other substances.
This is usually determined by two things:

42. 1) How easily electrons can be removed (ionization energy) from an atom

43. 2) or how badly an atom wants to take other atom's electrons (electronegativity)

44. The transfer/interaction of electrons is the basis of chemical reactions.

45. Reactivity of Metals
Period - reactivity decreases as you go from left to right across a period.
Group - reactivity increases as you go down a group
Why? The farther to the left and down the periodic chart you go, the easier it is for electrons to be given or taken away, resulting in higher reactivity.

46. Reactivity of Non-Metals
Period - reactivity increases as you go from the left to the right across a period. Group - reactivity decreases as you go down the group.
Why? The farther right and up you go on the periodic table, the higher the electronegativity, resulting in a more vigorous exchange of electron.

47. Electron Affinity
Change in energy that occurs when a neutral atom acquires an electron
Hopefully atom is become more stable by acquiring an elcectron
Measured with a negative value
The more negative the value the easier it is to acquire an electron
Tends to become more negative across a period
Tends to become more positive down a group

48. Electron Affinity

49. Summary of Periodic Trends