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Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
Chapter 12
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Core Case Study: Nanotechnology
Bottom-up manufacturing Widespread applications Potential risks Need for guidelines and regulations Future applications
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Nanosolar Cells Fig. 12-1, p. 261
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12-1 What Are the Earth’s Major Geological Processes?
Concept Gigantic plates in the earth’s crust move very slowly atop the planet’s mantle, and wind and water move matter from place to place across the earth’s surface.
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The Earth Is a Dynamic Planet
What is geology? Earth’s internal structure Core Mantle Crust
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Plate Tectonics Tectonic plates Lithosphere Types of plate boundaries
Divergent Convergent Transform fault
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Plate Tectonics and Natural Hazards
Earthquakes Volcanoes Tsunamis Geologic recycling and biodiversity
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Earth’s Crust and Upper Mantle
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Abyssal floor Oceanic ridge Abyssal floor
Folded mountain belt Volcanoes Abyssal floor Oceanic ridge Abyssal floor Trench Abyssal hills Craton Abyssal plain Oceanic crust (lithosphere) Abyssal plain Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise Continental crust (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Figure 12.2: Major features of the earth’s crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere, composed of the crust and outermost mantle, is rigid and brittle. The asthenosphere, a zone in the mantle, can be deformed by heat and pressure. Mantle (asthenosphere) Fig. 12-2, p. 263
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Plate Tectonics
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Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate
Spreading center Ocean trench Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate Collision between two continents Plate movement Plate movement Tectonic plate Subduction zone Oceanic crust Oceanic crust Continental crust Continental crust Cold dense material falls back through mantle Material cools as it reaches the outer mantle Hot material rising through the mantle Mantle convection cell Figure 12.3: The earth’s crust is made up of a mosaic of huge rigid plates, called tectonic plates, which move around in response to forces in the mantle. See an animation based on this figure at ThomsonNOW. Mantle Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current. Hot outer core Inner core Fig. 12-3, p. 264
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Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates
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Fig. 12-4, p. 265 EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICAN ANATOLIAN PLATE PLATE
JUAN DE FUCA PLATE CHINA SUBPLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE PHILIPPINE PLATE AFRICAN PLATE ARABIAN PLATE PACIFIC PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE NAZCA PLATE INDIA-AUSTRALIAN PLATE SOMALIAN SUBPLATE Figure 12.4: The earth’s major tectonic plates. The extremely slow movements of these plates cause them to grind into one another at convergent plate boundaries, move apart from one another at divergent plate boundaries, and slide past one another at transform plate boundaries. Question: What plate are you riding on? See an animation based on this figure at ThomsonNOW. ANTARCTIC PLATE Fig. 12-4, p. 265
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The San Andreas Fault Fig. 12-5, p. 265
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External Earth Processes
Weathering Physical Chemical Biological Erosion Rain, flowing water, wind Glaciers
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12-2 What Are Minerals and Rocks and How Are Rocks Recycled?
Concept 12-2A Some naturally occurring materials in the earth’s crust can be extracted and processed into useful materials. Concept 12-2B Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks in the earth’s crust are recycled very slowly by geologic processes.
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Nonrenewable Mineral Resources (1)
Minerals Mineral resource Fossil fuels Metallic Nonmetallic
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Nonrenewable Mineral Resources (2)
Identified resources Reserves Potential impact of nanotechnology
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Rocks and Minerals Rock Ore Rock cycle Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
High-grade ore Low-grade ore Rock cycle
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The Rock Cycle
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Weathering Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Granite, pumice, basalt
Erosion Transportation Weathering Deposition Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Granite, pumice, basalt Sandstone, limestone Heat, pressure Cooling Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Figure 12.6: Natural capital: the rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes. Rocks are recycled over millions of years by three processes: melting, erosion, and metamorphism, which produce igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rock from any of these classes can be converted to rock of either of the other two classes, or can be recycled within its own class (Concept 12-2B). Question: What are three ways in which the rock cycle benefits your lifestyle? Melting Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite Fig. 12-6, p. 267
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12-3 What Are the Harmful Environmental Effects of Using Mineral Resources?
Concept Extracting and using mineral resources can disturb the land, erode soils, produce large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air, water, and soil.
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Environmental Impact of Using Mineral Resources (1)
High energy use Disturb land Erode soil Produce solid waste
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Environmental Impact of Using Mineral Resources (2)
Pollute air, water, and soil Total impact may depend on grade of ore
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Life Cycle of a Metal Resource
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Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Smelting
Conversion to product Discarding of product Recycling Figure 12.7: Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste. Fig. 12-7, p. 268
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Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Discarding of product Recycling Melting metal Conversion to product Figure 12.7: Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste. Stepped Art Fig. 12-7, p. 268
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Environmental Effects of Using Mineral and Energy Resources
Fig. 12-8, p. 268
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Extracting Mineral Deposits
Surface mining Subsurface mining Overburden Spoils
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Mining Methods Open-pit mining Strip mining Area strip mining
Contour strip mining Mountaintop removal
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Open-pit Mining Fig. 12-9, p. 269
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Strip Mining Fig , p. 269
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Contour Strip Mining
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Undisturbed land Overburden Pit Bench Spoil banks Highwall Coal seam
Figure 12.11: Natural capital degradation: contour strip mining of coal used in hilly or mountainous terrain. Spoil banks Fig , p. 270
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Mountaintop Mining Fig , p. 270
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Harmful Environmental Effects of Mining
Disruption of land surface Subsidence Toxic-laced mining wastes Acid mine drainage Air pollution
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Harmful Environmental Effects of Removing Metals from Ores
Ore mineral – desired metal Gangue – waste material Smelting Air polluting by-products Chemical removal processes Toxic holding ponds
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12-4 How Long Will Mineral Resources Last?
Concept An increase in the price of a scarce mineral resource can lead to increased supplies and more efficient use of the mineral, but there are limits to this effect.
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Uneven Distribution of Mineral Resources
Abundant minerals Scarce minerals Exporters and importers Strategic metal resources Economic and military strength U.S. dependency – four critical minerals Sources?
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Supplies of Mineral Resources
Available supply and use Economic depletion Six choices after depletion Recycle, reuse, waste less, use less, find a substitute, do without Depletion time
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Depletion Curves for a Nonrenewable Resource
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Present Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C
Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries B Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries Production C Figure 12.13: Depletion curves for a nonrenewable resource (such as aluminum or copper) using three sets of assumptions. Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs. Present Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C Time Fig , p. 272
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Effect of Market Prices on Supplies of Nonrenewable Resources
Role of economics in mining Standard economic theory Limited free market in developed countries Subsides, taxes, regulations, import tariffs Economic problems of developing new mines
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Mining Lower-grade Ores
Improved equipment and technologies Limiting factors Cost Supplies of freshwater Environmental impacts Biomining In-situ mining Genetic engineering
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Ocean Mining (1) Minerals from seawater Minerals for ocean sediments
Hydrothermal deposits Manganese-rich nodules
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Ocean Mining (2) Mining issues in international waters
Environmental issues
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12-5 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainably?
Concept We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources, recycle and reuse minerals, reduce resource waste, and convert the wastes from some businesses into raw materials for other businesses.
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Finding Substitutes and Alternatives for Scarce Mineral Resources
Materials revolution Ceramics and plastics Limitations Recycle and reuse Less environmental impact
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Using Nonrenewable Resources More Sustainably
Decrease use and waste 3M Company Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) program Economic and environmental benefits of cleaner production
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Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals
Fig , p. 275
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Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems (1)
Mimic nature to deal with wastes – biomimicry Waste outputs become resource inputs Recycle and reuse Resource exchange webs
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Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems (2)
Reclaiming brownfields Industrial ecology Ecoindustrial revolution
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An Industrial Ecosystem
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Sulfuric acid producer
Sludge Pharmaceutical plant Local farmers Sludge Greenhouses Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Fish farming Surplus natural gas Oil refinery Electric power plant Fly ash Surplus sulfur Waste calcium sulfate Figure 12.15: Solutions: an industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg, Denmark, reduces waste production by mimicking a food web in natural ecosystems. The wastes of one business become the raw materials for another. Question: Is there an industrial ecosystem near where you live or go to school? If not, why not? Surplus natural gas Waste heat Cement manufacturer Sulfuric acid producer Wallboard factory Area homes Fig , p. 276
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Sulfuric acid producer Surplus sulfur
Greenhouses Waste heat Pharmaceutical plant Waste heat Local farmers Sludge Fish farming Waste heat Oil refinery Waste heat Surplus natural gas Electric power plant Cement manufacturer Fly ash Sulfuric acid producer Surplus sulfur Wallboard factory Waste calcium sulfate Surplus natural gas Area homes Waste heat Stepped Art Fig , p. 276
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Animation: Geological Forces
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Animation: Plate Margins
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Animation: Sulfur Cycle
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Animation: Resources Depletion and Degradation
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Video: Continental Drift
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Video: Asteroid Menace
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Video: Indonesian Earthquake
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Video: Tsunami Alert Testing
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Video: Mount Merapi Volcano Eruption
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