1. GARETH MORGAN Organizations as Brains

2. G.R. Taylor’s Opening Observations/Questions Is it possible to design “learning organizations” that have the capacity to be as flexible, resilient, and inventive as the functioning of the brain? Is it possible to distribute capacities for intelligence and control throughout an enterprise so that the system as a whole can self-organize and evolve along with emerging challenges?

3. Herbert Simon Why did Simon argue that organizations can never be completely rational?  Because their members have limited information processing abilities.  Argued that people a) usually have to act on incomplete information; b) are able to explore on a limited number of alternatives; and c) are unable to attach accurate values to outcomes.  He concluded that individuals and organizations settle for “bounded rationality” of “good enough” decisions based on simple rules of thumb and limited search and information.

4. Cybernetics What is cybernetics?  The ability of a system to engage in self-regulating behaviour depending on the process of information exchange involving negative feedback.

5. 4 Key Principles of Cybernetic Theory 1. Systems must have the capacity to sense, monitor, and scan significant aspects of their environment. 2. They must be able to relate this information to the operating norms that guide system behaviour. 3. They must be able to detect significant deviations from these norms. 4. They must be able to initiate corrective action when discrepancies are detected.

6. Single-loop Learning

7. Double-loop Learning

8. Guidelines for “Learning Organizations” 1. Scan and anticipate change in the wider environment to detect significant variations. 2. Develop the ability to question, challenge, and change operating norms and assumptions. 3. Allow an appropriate strategic direction and pattern of organization to emerge. 4. Evolve designs that allow them to become skilled in the art of double-loop learning, to avoid getting trapped in single-loop learning processes.

9. Organizations as Holographic Brains How does Morgan describe the metaphor of the holographic brain?

10. What are the Principles of Holographic design? 1. Build the “whole” into all the “parts.” 2. The importance of redundancy. 3. Requisite Variety 4. “Minimum Specs” 5. Learn to Learn  See chart in text to help discuss examples

11. Critical Analysis What are the strengths and weaknesses of the brain metaphor?