1. Surface-interior exchange on rocky and icy planets Edwin Kite University of Chicago Testability requires linking processes of interest (mineralogical, metabolic, …) to atmospheric properties that we can measure ; this requires basic theory for surface-interior exchange rate (ζ, s -1 ) that is currently undeveloped Today: What can we infer about ζ on planets in general from the 3 data points in hand? Io, ζ = 10 -15 s -1 (NH/RALPH) Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 (Pinatubo Plume) Enceladus, ζ = 10 -16 s -1 (Cassini/ISS)

2. J. Guarinos If volcanism ceased, Earth’s biosphere would become undetectable over interstellar distances within 1 Myr

3. Image: C.-T. Lee Kasting et al. Icarus 1993 Kite, Gaidos & Manga ApJ 2011 Maher et al. Science 2014

5. Low ζ : Sterile Near-Surface Ocean High ζ : Potentially Habitable Near-Surface Ocean e.g. Hand et al. Astrobiology 2007 Vance & Brown, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2013 Sleep & Zoback, Astrobiology 2007 Ganymede Europa

6. Understanding surface-interior exchange (ζ) after the epoch of formation is necessary to understand super-Earth atmospheres, H 2 /H 2 O ratios, and habitability

7. Understanding surface-interior exchange (ζ) after the epoch of formation is necessary to link hypotheses to measurable properties How much H 2 can be produced >10 8 yr after formation? Short-period rocky planet atmospheres Climate stabilization on planets with modest atmospheres Kasting et al. 1993; Kite et al. 2011; Kopparapu et al. 2013. Nutrient resupply for chemosynthetic biosphere on planets with atmospheres that are opaque in the visible Testability via short-lived species e.g. SO 2 Loss rates vary between gases, so atmospheres could be a mix of gases left over from accretion and those replenished by volcanism.

8. Open questions How do rocky planets dispose of extreme internal heating? Io, ζ = 10 -15 s -1 : Heat-pipe volcanism simply relates ζ to heat input; implications for magma planets? What governs the rate of cryo-volcanism? Enceladus, ζ = 10 -16 s -1 : Effect of mass and galactic cosmochemical evolution minor; age moderately important; thickness of volatile overburden critical. How does silicate volcanism scale to Super-Earths? Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 :

9. Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 : partial melting by decompression Planet’s mantle is cooled by conduction through a thin boundary layer Decompression melting of mantle to form a crust Korenaga, Annual Reviews EPS, 2013 degassing Volatiles partition efficiently into even small-% melts e.g. Earth oceanic cruste.g. Earth continents Venus, Mars … mantle rocks crust Partial melt zones x z Plate tectonics Stagnant lid

10.  How does melt flux vary with time and planet mass?  What is the role of galactic cosmochemical evolution?  Can volcanism occur on volatile-rich planets? Kite, Manga & Gaidos, ApJ, 2009 Tackley et al., IAU Symp. 293, 2014 Stamenkovic, 2014

11. How Earth-like melting scales to Super Earths ΔT P/ρg k(T p – T s )/Q Mantle parcel ascending beneath stagnant lid Mantle parcel ascending beneath mid-ocean ridge Melt fraction Plate tectonics Stagnant lid Kite, Manga & Gaidos ApJ 2009

12. Simple thermal model and melting model Parameterized convection models tuned to reproduce 7km thick oceanic crust on today’s Earth Cooling rate 50-100 K/Gyr Korenaga AREPS 2013 Assumptions: Melting with small residual porosity, melts separate quickly, and suffer relatively little re- equilibration during ascent..X(T,P): McKenzie & Bickle, 1988 Katz et al., 2003 pMELTS (Asimow et al.,2001) Kite, Manga & Gaidos ApJ 2009

13. Super-Earth volcanism: plates versus stagnant lid PLATES STAGNANT LID Kite, Manga & Gaidos, ApJ, 2009 Effect of galactic cosmochemical evolution minor; white dwarfs validate chondritic assumption beyond limits of melt fraction databases = Kepler-444 Tau Ceti Earth today

14. Volatile-rich planets lack volcanism Kite, Manga & Gaidos, ApJ, 2009; Ocean and planet masses (black dots) from accretion simulations of Raymond et al., Icarus, 2006 Error on Kepler-93 radius CO 2 degas H 2 O degas Maximum volcanism Zero volcanism Mass above volatile-rock interface (Earth oceans)

15. Many “Earths” defined using 5% radius error will lack volcanism Jacobsen & Walsh in AGU Early Earth monograph 2015  This ensemble is Earth-tuned, at least conceptually  Giant impacts introduce further scatter (Stewart group, Schlichting group, …) Both hydrogen mass fraction and water mass fraction are very variable:

16. Mantle rock Volcanism-free planets are primed for H 2 production via water-rock reactions Serpentinization: rapid for mantle rocks, slow for crust. Serpentinization rare on Earth because mantle rocks are usually shrouded by crust z D. Kelley et al. Nature 2001 T = 394K T < 1000K Aqueous phase (supercritical, molecular water) Moist hydrogen photosphere Habitable Hypothetical

17. L. Rogers, PhD thesis, 2012 Kreidberg et al. ApJ 2014 Mantle rock z T = 394K Stratification expected Aqueous phase (supercritical, molecular water) Moist hydrogen photosphere Habitable Newton & Manning, GCA 2002 T > 1000K

18. Open questions How do rocky planets dispose of extreme internal heating? Io, ζ = 10 -15 s -1 : Heat-pipe volcanism simply relates ζ to heat input; implications for magma planets? What governs the rate of cryo-volcanism? Enceladus, ζ = 10 -16 s -1 : Effect of mass and galactic cosmochemical evolution minor; age moderately important; thickness of volatile overburden critical. How does silicate volcanism scale to Super-Earths? Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 :

19. Io (Jupiter I),ζ = 10 -15 s -1 : fastest surface-interior exchange rate known L. Morabito et al., Science 1979 Total heat flow Q = 40 x Earth (Veeder et al. Icarus 2012) Conductive lithosphere would be 1500/(Q/k) ~ 2 km thick But mountains are up to 18 km high! Plume

20. Surface-interior exchange in heat-pipe mode on Io: explaining ζ = 10 -15 s -1 O’Reilly & Davies, GRL, 1981 cold, frozen subsiding crust (2 cm/yr) Ascending magma Moore et al. in Lopes & Spencer, “Io after Galileo,” 2007. From tidal heating calculations Slow surface-interior exchange Fast surface-interior exchange: cold, strong crust Temperature Depth x z thin flows

21. ζ is more predictable for massive and/or young rocky planets than for old and/or small rocky planets Kite, Manga & Gaidos, ApJ 2009 Moore et al. J. Geophys. Res. 2003 Spreading rate (m/yr): Advective cooling (Io-like) ζ ~ Q Conductive cooling (Earth-like) ζ = ζ(Q, X, T(t,z) …) No heat pipes With heat pipes

22. BATCH EVAPORATION BATCH EVAPORATION FRACTIONAL EVAPORATION FRACTIONAL EVAPORATION How does ζ affect magma planet / disintegrating planet observables? Kepler-10b, -32b, -42c, -78b, -407b, CoRoT-7b, KIC 12557548b … Rappaport et al. 2012 Perez-Becker & Chiang MNRAS 2013 Sanchis-Ojeda et al. ApJ 2014 Croll et al. arXiv 2014 Bochinski et al. ApJL 2015 Low ζ: Thin Al + Ti + O atmosphere Slow mass loss High ζ: Thick atmosphere including Na, K Fast mass loss

23. strong time variability and outbursts? Rathbun & Spencer 2003 Loki Patera, Io: a periodic volcano J. Rathbun et al. GRL 2002 How does ζ affect magma planet / disintegrating planet observables? 400 km across

24. Open questions How do rocky planets dispose of extreme internal heating? Io, ζ = 10 -15 s -1 : Heat-pipe volcanism simply relates ζ to heat input; implications for magma planets? What governs the rate of cryo-volcanism? Enceladus, ζ = 10 -16 s -1 : Effect of mass and galactic cosmochemical evolution minor; age moderately important; thickness of volatile overburden critical. How does silicate volcanism scale to Super-Earths? Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 :

25. Enceladus (Saturn II), ζ = 10 -16 s -1 : the only known active cryovolcanic world Cassini ISS Problems: Why ζ = 10 -16 s -1 ? Persistence of the eruptions through the diurnal tidal cycle Maintenance of fissure eruptions over Myr timescales Preventing subsurface ocean from refreezing over Gyr addressed today longer timescales

26. ancient, cratered South polar terrain: no craters 4 continuously- active “tiger stripes” Cryo-volcanism on Enceladus has deep tectonic roots Density = 1.6 g/cc

27. Probing tectonics Volcanism Geology ? ? Tectonic mode: Seismicity Geology Geomorphology Gravity EarthEnceladus 10 km

28. (4.6±0.2) GW excess thermal emission from surface fractures ( ~ 10 KW/m length; all four tiger stripes erupt as “curtains”) Spencer & Nimmo AREPS 2013 Porco et al. Astron. J. 2014 South polar projection Hotspots up to 200K No liquid water at surface Latent heat represented by plumes < 1 GW to Saturn 130 km

29. Key constraint #1: avert freeze-up at water table x z water table (30±5) km Kite & Rubin, in prep.

30. ? 5 x phase shift 55° Key constraint #2: match tidal response of plumes smaller plume grains larger plume grains (period: 1.3 days) base level NASA/JPL Ascent-time correction < 1 hour

31. New model: Melted-back slot Compression Tension ocean supersonic plume water level falls water level rises x z Attractive properties: Matches (resonant) phase lag Eruptions persist through 1.3d cycle Matches power output Pumping disrupts ice formation Slot evolves to stable width Kite & Rubin, in prep. σnσn σnσn

32. Long-lived water-filled slots drive tectonics COLD, STRONG ICE WARM, WEAK ICE x z Kite & Rubin, in prep. net flow << oscillatory flow

33. Slot model explains and links surface-interior exchange on diurnal through Myr timescales Gravity constraint Observed power Inferred power Predicted Myr-average power output matches observed phase lag slot aperture varies by >1.5 Kite & Rubin, in prep.

34. Future research requiring only existing data: ζ = ζ (R, X, t …) Temperature at volatile-rock interface Pressure at volatile-rock interface Earth, Io, Enceladus Subduction-zone thermodynamics Magma oceanography

35. Summary: ζ (R, X, t) = ? How do rocky planets dispose of extreme internal heating? Io, ζ = 10 -15 s -1 : Heat-pipe volcanism simply relates ζ to heat input; implications for magma planets? What governs the rate of cryo-volcanism? Enceladus, ζ = 10 -16 s -1 : Effect of mass and galactic cosmogenic evolution minor; age moderately important; thickness of volatile overburden critical. How does silicate volcanism scale to Super-Earths? Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 : Turbulent dissipation within tiger stripes may explain the power output of Enceladus. http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~kite

37. Bonus Slides

38. Blurb Purpose of growing research group Distinctive because we do both climate modeling and data analysis “in-house” U. Chicago planets-and-exoplanets research

39. A CHALLENGE TO MODELERS: ζ (r, t, m) drywet Where does habitability stop? Sketch of processes that matter

40. Possible hints(?) at a research program? Subduction-zone experimental petrology 1D radiative-convective modeling of H2-H2O- “rock” measurements Glenn Extreme Environment Rig

41. Heat production vs. heat loss Compare to magmatic activity

42. Outline (for own reference …) Define Zeta parameter Relate this to things we might be able to measure (white dwarfs, radiogenics) Scaling ongoing rock magmatism in the solar system Scaling ongoing cryo-volcanism in the solar system Exchange scenarios without solar system tie points (Volatile-rich planets, Magma planets)

43. Ikoma & Genda 2006

44. Is plate tectonics possible? Valencia & O’Connell (EPSL, 2009) show that faster plate velocities on super-Earths don’t lead to buoyant plates - provided that Tc < 0.16 Tl at the subduction zone. We find that this limit is comfortably exceeded, and plates are positively buoyant at the subduction zone when M ≥ 10 M earth Differing results related to choice of t ν.

45. Galactic cosmochemical evolution Time after galaxy formation (Gyr) [X]/[Si], normalized to Earth 10 1 Eu is a spectroscopic proxy for r –process elements such as U & Th. Eu/Si trends indicate that the young Galaxy is Si – poor. Effects on present-day conditions: Including cosmochemical trends in [U] and [Th] lowers mantle temperature (T m ) by up to 50 K for young planets, while raising T m by up to 40 K for old stars, compared to their present-day temperature had they formed with an Earthlike inventory of radiogenic elements.  Acts to reduce the effect of aging. Frank et al. Icarus 2014

46. Earth, ζ = 10 -18 s -1 : partial melting by decompression Decompression melting of mantle to form a crust Langmuir & Forsyth, Oceanography 2007 degassing Volatiles partition efficiently into even small-% melts

47. water source surface usually frozen vs. sustained melt pool? intermittent vs. steady? duty cycle? timescale? habitability astrobiology Understanding the sustainability of water eruptions on Enceladus is important ice shell

48. Surface-atmosphere exchange does not dominate! The heart of the problem