1. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition PARAGRAPHS

2. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition CHECKLIST FOR REVISING PARAGRAPHS  Is the paragraph unified? Does it adhere to one general idea that is either stated in a topic sentence or otherwise apparent?  Is the paragraph coherent? Do the sentences follow a clear sequence? Are the sentences linked as needed by parallelism, repetition or restatement, pronouns, consistency, and transitional expressions?  Is the paragraph developed? Is the general idea of the paragraph well supported with specific evidence such as details, facts, examples, and reasons? 4.1

3. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition WAYS TO ACHIEVE PARAGRAPH COHERENCE  Organize effectively.  Repeat or restate key words and word groups.  Use parallel structures.  Use pronouns.  Be consistent in nouns, pronouns, and verbs.  Use transitional expressions. 4.2

4. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition SOME STRATEGIES FOR OPENING PARAGRAPHS  Ask a question.  Relate an incident.  Use a vivid quotation.  Offer a surprising statistic or other fact.  State an opinion related to your thesis.  Outline the argument your thesis refutes.  Provide background.  Create a visual image that represents your subject.  Make a historical comparison or contrast.  Outline a problem or dilemma.  Define a word central to your subject.  In some business or technical writing, summarize your paper. 4.3

5. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition OPENINGS TO AVOID  A vague generality or truth, such as “Throughout history...”  A flat announcement, such as “The purpose of this essay...”  A reference to the essay’s title, such as “This is a big problem.”  A dictionary definition, such as “According to Webster...”  An apology, such as “I’m not sure if I’m right, but...” 4.4

6. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition SOME STRATEGIES FOR CLOSING PARAGRAPHS  Recommend a course of action.  Summarize the paper.  Echo the approach of the introduction.  Restate your thesis and reflect on its implications.  Strike a note of hope or despair.  Give a symbolic or powerful fact or other detail.  Give an especially compelling example.  Create an image that represents your subject.  Use a quotation. 4.5

7. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition CLOSINGS TO AVOID  A repeat of the introduction  Don’t simply replay your introduction.  A new direction  Don’t introduce a subject different from the one your essay has been about.  A sweeping generalization  Don’t conclude more than you reasonably can from the evidence you have presented.  An apology  Don’t cast doubt on your essay. 4.6

8. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition EXERCISE Eliminating inconsistencies in paragraphs Identify the inconsistencies and revise the paragraph below to give it coherence. The Hopi tihu, or kachina likeness, is often called a “doll,” but its owner, usually a girl or woman, does not regard them as a plaything. Instead, you treated them as a valued possession and hung them out of the way on a wall. For its owner the tihu represents a connection with the kachina’s spirit. They are considered part of the kachina, carrying a portion of the kachina’s power. 4.7a

9. Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Tenth Edition ANSWERS TO EXERCISE The Hopi tihu, or kachina likeness, is often called a “doll,” but its owner, usually a girl or woman, does not regard it as a plaything. Instead, she treats it as a valued possession and hangs it out of the way on a wall. For its owner the tihu represents a connection with the kachina’s spirit. It is considered part of the kachina, carrying a portion of the kachina’s power. 4.7b