1. L and T Dwarfs* History of discovery Spectral types/properties Interiors of low mass stars Evolution of low mass stars Photospheres of low mass stars Often Brilliant Astronomers Find Great Knowledge Meeting Late Together *Discussion and figures taken from Reid and Hawley’s New Light on Dark Stars, 2000

2. A Little History Substantial effort in ’80s and early ’90s to find very low mass M dwarfs Parallax surveys of high proper motion red objects Companions to M dwarfs, WDs (IR excesses) Companion to vB8 – NOT Companion to G29-38 – NOT Companion to G165B – YES! the first L dwarf Spectrum not understood until more found Gl 229B the first T dwarf IR Colors surprisingly blue Note change in slope – H 2

3. Brown Dwarfs Abound! Many L and T dwarfs have now been found –Improved IR detectors –Better spatial resolution (seeing improvements, AO) –IR and multi-color surveys (2MASS, DENIS, and Sloan) –Breakthrough in understanding appearance of spectra Significant progress in modeling low mass stellar and substellar objects Understood in the late ’50s (Limber) that – low mass stars must be fully convective –Electron degeneracy must play a role –H 2 formation also important (change in slope of main seq. at 0.5 M Sun ) Kumar figured out (in the early ’60s) that a minimum mass is needed for H burning Grossman et al. included deuterium burning (early ’70s) Recent improvements include better equation of state and grain formation

4. Minimum Mass for H Burning As protostar collapses, core temperature rises Low mass stars must collapse to higher densities before temperature high enough for fusion As density increases, core becomes partially degenerate An increasing fraction of energy from collapse goes into compressing degenerate gas Degeneracy stops star from collapsing below 0.1 R Sun (and the core temperature can’t get any higher than this) What happens to the star? –If M>0.09M Sun, core fusion is possible and sustainable for many Hubble times –For 0.08-0.085 M Sun, degeneracy lowers central temperature, but it’s still hot enough for hydrogen fusion (main sequence) –At 0.075 Msun, core temperature is initially hot enough, but degeneracy cools the core and fusion stops – “transition object” –For lower masses (M<0.07M Sun ), the core is never hot enough for fusion, brown dwarf cools to oblivion Stellar mass limit somewhere between transition object and brown dwarf

5. Evolutionary Models Deuterium burning Hydrogen burning Transition objects may burn for ~10 Gyr At a given luminosity, it is hard to distinguish between young brown dwarfs and older stars

6. M Dwarf Spectral Types Molecular species switch from MgH to TiO CaOH appears in later M dwarfs Prominent Na D lines Spectral types determined in the blue

7. Later Spectral Classes TiO disappears to be replaced by water, metal hydrides (FeH, CrH) Alkali metal lines strengthen (note K I in the L8 dwarf) Spectral types determined from red, far red spectra (blue too faint!)

8. L-type Spectral Sequence K I line strength increases with later spectral type Li I appears in some low mass stars (m < 0.06 solar masses) Appearance of FeH, CrH Strength of Ca I Strength of water Disappearance of TiO Absence of FeH, CrH in T dwarf, much increased strength of water

9. Li in Brown Dwarfs Li I appears in about a third of L dwarfs EQW from 1.5 to 15 Angstroms Li I can be used to distinguish between old, cooled brown dwarfs and younger, lower mass dwarfs

10. Evolution of Lithium At a given Teff,Stars with Li are lower mass than stars with Li depleted.

11. IR Spectra methane H2OH2O H2OH2O L dwarf IR spectra are dominated by water and CO H2OH2O T dwarf IR spectra dominated by water and methane

12. M Dwarf Spectra Are a Mess Observed spectrum of M8 V dwarf VB10 Black body and H - continuum spectra shown as dashed lines Real spectrum doesn’t match either Spectrum dominated by sources of opacity

13. Opacities Bound-bound opacities – molecules –TiO, CaH + other oxides & hydrides in the optical –H 2 O, CO in the IR –~10 9 lines! –Bound-bound molecular line opacities dominate the spectrum Bound-free opacities –Atomic ionization, molecular dissociation Free-free opacities – Thomson and Rayleigh scattering In metal-poor low mass stars, pressure induced absorption of H 2 - H 2 is important in the IR (longer than 1 micron) H 2 molecules have allowed transitions only at electric quadrupole and higher order moments, so H 2 itself is not significant Also significant van der Waals collisional (pressure) broadening of atomic and molecular lines, making these lines much stronger than they would otherwise be At even cooler temperatures (T~1500-1200) CO is depleted by methane formation (CH 3 ) – the transition from L to T dwarfs

14. Opacities at 2800K Solar metallicity [Fe/H]=-2.5

15. Stellar Models General assumptions include –Plane parallel geometry –Homogeneous layers –LTE Surface gravities: log g ~ 5.0 Convection using mixing length Convection is important even at low optical depth (  <0.01) Strength of water absorption depends on detailed temperature structure and treatment of convection For Teff < 3000 K, grains become important in atmospheric structure (scattering)

16. Dust Dust formation is important in M, L, and T dwarfs Depletes metals, including Ti Dust includes Corundum (Al 2 O 3 ) Perovskite (CaTiO 3 ), condensing at T < 2300-2000K Iron (Fe) VO, condensing at T < 1900-1700 K Enstatite (MgSiO 3 ) Forsterite (Mg 2 SiO 4 ) Double-metal absorbers weaken (VO, TiO) Hydride bands dominate Dust opacity causes greenhouse heating – outgoing IR radiation trapped by extra dust-grain opacity Heating dissociates H2O, giving weaker water bands Dust settles gravitationally, depleting metals and leaving reduced opacities (time scales unclear) Dusty models fit observed flux distributions better

17. Alkali Lines Alkali lines very prominent in L dwarf spectra (Li, Na, K, Cs, Rb) Strong because of very low optical opacities –TiO, VO are gone –Dust formation also removes primary electron donors, so H - and H2 - opacities are also reduced –High column density due to low optical opacity leads to very strong lines K I lines at 7665 and 7699 A have EQWs of several hundred Angstroms Na D lines also become very strong

18. And More Dust As temperature falls: CO depleted to form methane at temperatues < 1500-1200 K But Na may condense onto “high albite” (NaAlSi 3 O 8 ) CrH condenses at T=1400 K Alkali elements expected to form chlorides at T < 1200

19. Temperature Calibration Spectral Type Teff (K) Radius (R/R sun ) MassL/L Sun Log g M038000.620.600.0724.65 M234000.44 0.0234.8 M431000.360.200.0064.9 M626000.150.100.00095.1 M822000.12~0.080.00035.2 L02000~0.1 L21900~0.1 L41750~0.1 L61600~0.1 L81400~0.1 T<1200

20. Loooooooooong Term Evolution After 1400 Gyr, increased He fraction in core causes temperature increase, more complete H burning Surface temperature increases After 5740 Gyr, only 16% of H is left, opacity is lower, radiative core develops H burning shell forms Teff, L continue to rise until 6000 Gyr When H depleted, degenerate He star with thin (1% by mass) H envelope finally cools